A Brief Biographic Review
- August 15, 1769: the day Napoleon Bonaparte was born – the future emperor of France, the great commander, and a politician.
- 1780 – 1784: Studies at Brienne Military Academy at the expense of the State.
- 1784 – October 1785: Napoleon is sent to an elite military school in Paris. After the graduation, he became a second lieutenant of artillery (his first title).
- 1793: Napoleon got a promotion and became a general of brigade (“Napoleon Bonaparte Biography” par. 2).
- 1796 – 1797: Bonaparte becomes commander in chief of the Italian army.
- 1798 – 1799: an unsuccessful Egyptian campaign of Napoleon.
- 9 – 10 November 1799 – Napoleon overthrew the Directory and gained power over France. Then he received the title of lifelong Consul of the French Republic in 1802.
- 1801 – 1802: peace treaties with Russia, Austria, Prussia and England.
- 1803: The war with England.
- 1805: Coronation of Napoleon I in Paris (“Napoleon Bonaparte Biography” par. 3).
- 1806: Creation of the “Confederation of the Rhine.“
- June 1812: The Russian Campaign.
- October 1813: The battle of Leipzig, often called the “Battle of the Nations”, in which Napoleon was defeated.
- March 1814: Louis XVIII becomes a new king of France.
- April 6, 1814 – Napoleon abdicates the post. He is sent to Elba.
- 20 March – 22 June 1815: During this period, Bonaparte returned to France, and immediately began to gather an army to deal with his major opponents at a time. Napoleon didn’t succeed and was consequently sent to St. Helena Island.
- May 5, 1821: Bonaparte’s Death
International Premises for the War of 1812
The war of 1812 was one of the central events in the history of European countries in the 19th century. It has predetermined the development of the political and economic relations among the countries for the several following decades.
After several unfortunate military campaigns initiated by the Russian governor, Alexander I, in 1805, 1806, and 1807, France and Russia sign the Treaties of Tilsit that established peace between the States. Nevertheless, there were political and economic controversies in Russia-France relations that have eventually provoked the war in 1812.
The controversies were related to continental trade system issues. Napoleon attempted to destroy the GB trade and forbade the economic relations with the country. The legal foundation for the continental blockade was the decree Napoleon signed in Berlin in 1806.
Russia adopted Napoleon’s continental blockade but continued to have economic relations with Britain.
The further isolation of the GB from other European countries invoked negative economic outcomes for Bonaparte’s allies while British trade relations in Asia have significantly improved (Bickham 55). The outcomes inspired indignation and, as the result, led to the disruption of relations between Alexander I and Napoleon.
In December 1810, Russia commenced imposing the tariffs on the export of coins and luxury items to France. Some merchandise produced at the French factories was forbidden in Russia and other products were excessively taxed. In the response to these actions, Napoleon interrupted purchasing material for the French marine department from Russia (Neumann 13).
In 1811, in the articles characterized by the hostile attitudes towards Russia began to be published in the French periodic issues. It was regarded as the portent of war. At the same time, the universal conscription has followed in France. Russia started preparation to war as well.
Napoleon stated to strengthen relations with allies, i.e. Sweden. He began to supplement army with weapons and artillery at the beginning of 1811.
On June 12, 1812, Napoleon commenced his military campaign against Russia.
Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia
On June 12, 1812, Napoleon’s Army under the command of Marshals Davout, Ney, and Murat started the invasion Russia without the preliminary declaration of war. The Russian opposition consisted 300 soldiers. The Russian army was divided in order to protect all the areas in which Napoleon aimed to move: St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kiev (Neumann 15).
August 3, 1812: the first and the second Russian armies were defeated in the Battle of Smolensk. However, Napoleon’s plan to split the Russian army and force Russia to conclude a peace treaty was disrupted – the Russian army began to retreat. The war dragged on. The losses of the French army increased, and its supply deteriorated. From Smolensk, Napoleon sent a proposal to Alexander I for concluding a peace treaty, but he didn’t receive a response. Following the Russian armies, Napoleon went on against Moscow in hoping for a decisive battle.
Battle of Borodino: A Fundamental Change in the War between France and Russia
August 26: in the village of Borodino (outside Moscow) there was the Battle of Borodino that played a decisive role in the war. After a day-long battle, the French were able to occupy the position of the Russian army but failed to defeat it. The Russian army was rescued and able to continue the military campaign.
September 1, 1812: at the council in a village near Moscow, Fillip Kutuzov, the Russian military commander, took responsibility for the difficult decision to abandon Moscow without a battle for the sake of the army. While leaving Moscow, he ordered to destroy ammunition and provision depots. The city was set on fire. The fire destroyed more than 70% of the buildings and all the food and arms supplies.
September 2: Napoleon entered the burning Moscow. Napoleon couldn’t let the French army stay in the devastated city in winter. On October 7, the French army left Moscow, moving to the Kaluga road. After Kutuzov’s Tarutino maneuver and the battle of Maloyaroslavets (12 October), the French army was forced to retreat along the ravaged Smolensk road.
Hunger, extreme cold, and the constant strikes caused by Russian troops turned the retreat of the French army into a stampede. In the battle at Berezina River, the French army faced a crushing defeat. Napoleon fled leaving the remnants of his army.
December 25, 1812: Alexander I issued a manifesto about the end of World War II.
Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic wars conducted from 1796 to 1815, have changed the face of Europe, but their value is now regarded as controversial. On their bayonets, the French soldiers carried the idea of freedom to the European people (“Napoleonic Wars” par. 1).
Napoleon’s wars have completely crushed the feudal system in Europe, primarily in its major powers of that time – Austria and Prussia. The French governor was considered a symbol of freedom. However, Napoleon soon became a “despot” in the eyes of the nations. The shifts in the public opinions gave rise to a powerful national liberation movement on the continent (especially in Germany and Spain). Having started the war in Europe, Napoleon sought to establish a pan-European dominance of France. As the result, the balance of power on the continent was disturbed. And it was one of the reasons for the collapse of the empire in 1814.
This new era in the world history was established by a great and equally controversial personality of Bonaparte. Comprehension of his ideological and political views’ evolution is important for the understanding of Napoleon’s motivation and cases for his political and military decision-making.
Napoleon’s Ideology
Youth was a difficult and challenging time for Napoleon Bonaparte. He was alienated in the French surroundings because of interest in Pasquale Paoli and Corsican patriotism. The curiosity led Bonaparte to the acquaintance with the ideas and concepts of the prominent figures of the Enlightenment era. As the result, Napoleon became involved in the anti-feudalism ideas and became a follower of the political freedom and the civil equality concepts (Murphy 1).
As the majority of the Napoleon’s contemporaries, the aspiration with the idea of freedom was combined in him with the support for the revolution. Bonaparte desired to transfer revolutionary movement to his homeland, Corsica (Heilbron 30).
Among the bourgeois revolutions of the new time, the French revolution of the 18th century is regarded as one of the major battles of capitalism and feudalism both at the regional and global scales. In France, it has provoked the fundamental changes in the order of social and political life: the gentry privileges were destroyed as well as the peasants’ obligations in feudalism; the power of church declined, the land-owning regulations were transformed; the entrepreneurship freedom was ensured, etc. (“French Revolution” par. 2).
Based on this, Napoleon was against the separatism of Corsica from France.
The Shifts in Napoleon’s Ideological Principles
The shifts in views and ideological breakdowns in Napoleon were caused by the clashes with his idol, Pasquale Paoli, who advocated for the separation of Corsica. Paoli’s success and Napoleon’s defeat made him flee from the homeland. Napoleon remained to be a follower of royalism but he no longer regarded himself as a Jacobin (a member of French democratic club).
It is possible to say that Napoleon was conceptually close to Thermidorians who were in favor of the bourgeois revolution.
The success of the Italian campaign inspired confidence in Napoleon. The conquering character of the Egypt campaign, the failure to spread the revolution to Asia catalyzed Napoleon’s idea about the seizure of power in France (Murphy 8).
The commander headed to France where he usurped the power during the coup, and during this period the complete transformation of his ideological views took place. Napoleon became a supporter of strong centralized authority and integrity of the personal property, as well as the enemy of people’s democracy and the general principle of separation of powers.
Napoleon’s republicanism at the time was quite sincere, and it is not so much gave way to ambition, despotism and lust for power but changed the awareness of new historical realities. Initially, all the policies and regulations adopted by Napoleon were largely influenced by his desire to maintain and consolidate the seized power. But at the same time, it is hard to say that his previous views were insincere.
The shifts in Napoleon’s viewpoints can be considered a natural result of the ideological evolution. And it the result of this evolution, Bonaparte found that France needs a strong authoritarian government.
During the period of his reign, Napoleon declared his genetic connection with the revolution and saw the progressive meaning in his actions and decisions till the end of his life.
Conclusion
The work is devoted to the examination and evaluation of the historical events that took place in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. The main focus of the presentation is made on research and review of Napoleon Bonaparte’s political relations with the European States, and the connections between his ideological views and the political actions. The examination of the ideological evolution of the given historical figure is of significant importance because it helps to understand the inner motivation of Bonaparte in his decision-making. Evaluation of his personal views and concepts helps to comprehend his goals as a politician and State leader. The review of the historical events and social attitudes facilitates the understanding of the political structure that existed in France in the 18th-19th centuries.
Works Cited
“French Revolution.” The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide. Abington: Helicon, 2015. Print.
“Napoleonic Wars.” The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide. Abington: Helicon, 2015. Print.
Bickham, Troy. The Weight of Vengeance. Oxford, UK: Oxford Press, 2012. Print.
Hailbron, Johan. “Sociology and positivism in 19th-century France: the vicissitudes of the Société de Sociologie (1872–4).” History of the Human Sciences 22.4 (2009): 30-62. Print.
Murphy, Robert Damien. “Napoleon Bonaparte: Savior Or Destroyer of the French Revolution?“ California State University, Dominguez Hills, 2002. ProQuest. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.
Neumann, Iver. Russia and the Idea of Europe: A Study in Identity and International Relations. London, UK: Routledge, 1996. Print.