Executive Summary
In the 1980s, policymakers and implementers focused on conservative crime prevention strategies such as making arrests and following the law to the letter. In the 1990s, other crime intervention strategies were invented, including problem-oriented crime intervention techniques, community policing, hot spots policing and broken window policing. Various police departments in the US adopted liberal strategies owing to their effectiveness.
The department of police is one of the government agencies considered so conservative to an extent that it is always resistant to change and development in terms of technology. Therefore, the incorporation of a problem-oriented crime intervention strategy into its mainstream agenda was amazing and dramatic. Due to this change, the police service was viewed positively, as one of the government agencies committed to solving social problems afflicting the American society.
Consequently, police professionals all over the country and criminology scholars moved on to adopt the policy. Going by the American data as regards to crime rates, there was a fall in crime in the US. Police elites, scholars and the public attributed this change in records to the new strategies applied by the police in preventing crime cases in the country (Niskanen, 1994).
The public, professionals and policy makers within government came to the realization that the previous police intervention strategies were wasteful, dubious and highly ineffective. Particular, the standard model of crime prevention and intervention was accused of its ineffectiveness in solving crime cases such as rape, kidnapping and domestic violence.
Scholars and government policy makers came to the realization that criminal justice systems such as random preventive police patrol and rapid police response did not have any positive effects as far crime prevention was concerned. Many people believed that the police was not able to maintain law and justice owing to its inability to contain crime. However, people changed their perception after the invention of the problem-oriented model (Gottfredson, & Hirschi, 1990).
Introduction
It is eminent that the police service has undergone many changes to improve its effectiveness as far as crime prevention is concerned. Indeed, various scholars have undertaken research to confirm that the conservative models of crime intervention are ineffective in preventing the occurrence of crime in society.
Furthermore, standardized model of crime prevention has proved defective in solving crime cases in the contemporary society. This article reviews what other scholars have done as regards to problem-oriented crime intervention strategy, as well as research design that would be employed in collecting data. The focus of the paper is to establish ascertain the best crime intervention strategy that would guarantee the safety of the community, eliminate fear and ensure order is maintained in society.
The paper evaluates the findings of other scholars in the literature review section. It is established that before the introduction of problem-oriented strategy, policy makers relied on the standardized model, whereby they depended upon a one-size-fits all model. This model would employ a reactive strategy instead of a proactive tactic (Manning, 2001). The reactive approach would only suppress crime but would not reduce its occurrence in society.
Problem oriented crime prevention strategy goes beyond the standardized technique because it focuses on the problem affecting the criminal and the apparatus to be used in solving such problems. In this model, the police are supposed to focus on the precise problems affecting the society and try as much as possible to come up with strategies that would counter such problems.
In other words, it calls for tailor made strategies that would be applied to solve the many problems affecting society. The model demands the police officers to depart from their usual traditional law enforcement tactics and embrace other available tactics that would solve the problems. In this regard, the law enforcement agencies might be forced to work with the community or other agencies offering security services.
Literature Review
Available literature reveals that problem-oriented model is one of the methods of crime intervention that works. Over the last two decades, governments have invested heavily in community-based models of crime prevention. Community-based policing entails a number of strategies meaning that its effectiveness in solving crime problems is high. Specifically, problem-oriented crime intervention strategy is known for reducing crime fear among the members of community.
Problem-oriented model is dynamic meaning that it keeps on changing time. In 1980s, foot patrol was one of the problem-oriented model techniques that were utilized by policy implementers due to the state of affairs at the time. In the contemporary world, the technique can no longer be applied due to the dynamics of society. In fact, a controversy has emerged lately because scholars are unable to agree over the best technique of problem-oriented model due to differences in environment.
One of the studies conducted in the US gave some shocking results as regards to problem-oriented model. The US federal government conducted one of the studies and the results revealed that the hiring system and the innovative programs within the police unit would determine the effectiveness of problem-oriented model. Conversely, the General Accounting Office disputed the findings of the federal government in 2007, mainly because of the validity issues.
Even though studies do not support the claims that holding community meetings, keeping an eye on neighbor and organizing private meetings would reduce crime, they support the argument that such practices would change the perception of the community regarding crime and disorder in society. In 1992, Sherman proved through research that door-to-door visits would trim down the cases of crime and disorder in society.
However, the scholar was quick to caution that offering any kind of information to the community would not reduce the cases of crime. Problem-oriented crime prevention model relied on foot patrol to determine the prevalence of crime in society. Trojanowicz in 1986 conducted a study in Flint, Michigan and found out that foot patrol practice would reduce reported crimes in society. However, foot patrol practice did not reduce crime in Boston, meaning that the model applies differently in different environments.
Recent literature shows that problem-oriented model of crime intervention would only reduce the fear of crime among the members of community. This would only take place when the police strengthen their partnerships with other stakeholders, such as the community members.
A number of quasi-experimental researches prove that problem-oriented techniques, which are typified by cooperation between police and community members, would have a negative outcome on fear of crime among members of society. Such techniques that would affect the effectiveness of problem-oriented model include synchronized community policing, offering other security firms contracts to patrol the crime prone regions and establishing community police stations (Skogan, 1990).
Furthermore, the conducts and behaviors of law enforcement staff influence the effectiveness of problem-oriented model. In this regard, some law enforcement agents claim that non-compliance from citizens would amount to social disorder. This means that the behavior of individual officers influences the model.
Three scholars conducted separate studies to substantiate these claims and found out that police-citizen relations affected the model. In case police officers turn out to be disrespectful to citizens, members of society would choose not to cooperate with such officers (Clarke, 1992).
When applied carefully, problem-oriented model would reduce fear of crime, brutal and property offenses, weapons related murder and other forms of social disorders, such as prostitution and drug trade. In Jersey City for instance, the study public housing research proved that problem-solving practices led to decline in crime cases such as violent and property felonies. In 2002, Clark and Goldstein found out that problem solving model would reduce crimes such as theft.
Research Questions
Conducting a research is like setting on a journey whose destination is not very clear to the traveler. Research is a path whose destination is unknown. However, it is important to note that despite this, there should be a proper plan on how the research would be conducted. A guide should be developed that would help in reaching the desired result in the research process. In a research, research questions and hypothesis are very important guides in developing a desired solution from the field.
Hypothesis would always be developed from the research questions. Hypotheses are always possible response to the research question. Research questions are the core of any research process. In case it is poorly developed, the entire research process would lose focus and the possible result may not hold any meaningful truth. The researcher would be seeking answers to these questions. Having taken the above considerations, the researcher developed some questions.
The two questions were purposely set to meet the above concern raised about the effectiveness of problem-oriented model in crime intervention (Crotty, 2003). This study seeks to gather and analyze data that would help explain the reason behind the difference in effectiveness between standardized model and problem-oriented model. Having confirmed from the literature review that there is a considerable gap between standard and problem-oriented models, the researcher developed this question to bring to focus the effectiveness of the liberal model over conservative model.
- Does existing literature support the perception that standard model of crime intervention is ineffective in solving cases of crime and social disorders
- Do recent approaches such as problem-oriented model capable of solving crime and social disorders
- What should policy makers learn from the new strategies of crime prevention
Hypotheses
- Standard model of crime intervention is ineffective and spends more resources
- Problem-oriented model is an effective model of crime intervention, especially when it comes to changing the perception of members of society on fear of crime
Research Site and study Population
Before proceeding to collect data, the researcher needs to identify the site and the study population. This research will be conducted in one of the societies known for its high rates of crime. The community is characterized by domestic violence, robbery, organized crimes, kidnappings and rape. All these forms of crimes are common in society owing to economic hardships, lack of efficient policies and ineffective law enforcement agencies. Regarding the study population, the researcher would interview both selected members of society and the law enforcement officials, specifically the police. The relationship between the two parties would be evaluated through the questions asked through the questionnaire.
Methodology
This chapter focuses on various aspects of research development. It includes methods of data collection, analysis and presentation. Every research project applies a certain research method to achieve its objectives, depending on its goals. The methods used to conduct research in this proposal would compare closely with the methods used in the project. In this study, respondents were briefed in advance. The officials of the local police stations and selected members of scoeity were given relevant notice by the researcher.
The study population was also amicably informed in order to get prepared for the study. Briefing was important because it could enhance reliability of the study. It is also ethical to inform people before researching on them. The findings were also made public to the researched as one way of ensuring morality in the study. Furthermore, the researcher observed researcher-researcher ethics, by keeping away from criticism.
Research Design
There were two key methods used to gather information in this report. The first one was through a questionaire, which was administered online to the staff at local police stations and selected members of society. The questionaire sought to capture various attutudes of police officers and members of society regarding their perceptions on problem-orineted model of crime intervention (Creswell, 2003).. The second source of information used for the research was literature on various aspects crime intervention strategies.
The focus of the literature review was to find information on the application of problem-oriented techniques and also to determine the current state of research in the use of the model. The questionnaire had four Parts. The first part sought to capture the biodata information of respondents. The second part dealt with the demography and gender of the respondents. This was to ascertain the prevalence of views in varoius categories in order to ensure that if any differences came about, then they would be captured in their demographic space.
The third part dealt with academic credentials and work experience. The motivation for this section came from the understanding that different sections of population respond differently to crime intervention startegies, based on age and the environment. The fourth part delved into the specific issues relating to problem-oriented model, starting from the understanding of the concept to the possible effects it would have on workers.
The questionaire also employed a mix of open ended and closed ended questions to capture different aspects of issues studied. Open ended questions were used because they give respondents more time to figure out their opinions, which would make them volunteer more information related to feelings, outlooks and comprehension of the subject. This would allow a researcher to understand the position of respondents as regards to feelings.
Open ended questions minimize some errors that could have been created in the course of research. Respondents rarely forget answers if given an opportunity to respond freely. Furthermore, respondents cannot ignore some questions because they must go through all of them. Open ended questions generate data that can be used in data analysis by other researchers. In other words, they allow secondary data analysis. On the other hand, closed-ended questions are analyzed easily.
That is why they were used in this proposal. Each response can be coded for statistical interpretation. Nonetheless, closed-ended questions are compatible with computer analysis package. The technique is more specific meaning that its answers are consistent in all conditions. This aspect is impossible with open-ended questions because each respondent is allowed to use his or her own words. Finally, closed-ended questions take less time to administer unlike open-ended questions, which are detailed hence time consuming (Leedy, & Ormrod, 2005).
The questionnaire was sent to respondents through the internet that is, the researcher mailed the questions to respective respondents. The researcher arrived at this decision after considering time and reseources. The method is costless and less time consuming. Furthmore, the method allows respondents to reflect on the questions and answer them accurately. Employing research assistants would be problematic because of the sensitivity of the study.
Many people would be reluctant to give their views freely. The method is ineffective because answers are not independent of themselves. The respondent might not have filled the questions themselves. Moreover, the method is affected by the respondent’s level of literacy. One big disadvantage of the technique is that there is no interaction between the researcher and the researched. This means that respondent’s reactions are not captured.
Reactions are important because they give more information regarding to the feelings of respondents. Generally, the technique is more applicable where the researcher is interested in numbers, not deep feelings of the respondent. In this study, the researcher is interested in identifying the number of employees who feel performance related pay is the suitable method of stimulating employees.
The literature collected provided information regarding various theories of crime intervention spread across the last two decades. This provides a historical perspective since the area of crime intervention started receiving specific attention at that period. The literature provided information on the state of research on the field. Various researchers have conducted studies on various elements of crime intervention and their effects on society. This gave the study a sound academic backing and a strong basis for drawing comparisons and conclusions.
The use of the questionaire made it possible to capture issues that are unique to problem-oriented model. This is because there was no accessible literature with required degree of relevence to the subject matter about the liberal methods of crime intervention. The targeted members of society and the police responded to the questionaire online.
The availability of police oficers influenced the choice of this method because the police station operates throughout and therefore it is not possible at any one time to find all of them in one place. An online questionaire reduced the costs of data collection, assured confidentiality, and was available thoughout for the police officers and selected members of society for a fixed period. After collection, the data went through analysis, culminating to the observations and conslusions discussed in subsequent chapters.
Data Analysis
At the end of data collection, all completed questionnaires the police officers and the selected members of society were scrutinized by the researcher. The data collected data was coded and was prepared for computer analysis. The data were first analyzed for expressive statistics. The background data, working environments, job pleasure and work safety of police officers in the study would be presented in the tabular form and would be analyzed.
The second stage of data analysis would involve manifold regression analysis. The uncomplicated correlation matrix would be established to prove whether there exist multi-co linearity between the variables, rates of crimes (the dependent variable) and the, independent variables such as levels of education, schooling, experience of police officers, and income earned (Knepper, 2010).
Time Management
To manage the project effectively, the researcher came up with a Gant chart to organize various aspects.
Project Evaluation
Just as a planner has to anticipate implementation process and plan for it before actual implementation starts, he or she has to anticipate for monitoring and evaluation, as well as plan for them before actual implementation. Monitoring and evaluation need to be in-built in the implementation process. As the program is being implemented, it is necessary to monitor its progress and to ensure that activities are being carried out according to the plan (Secret, Abell & Berlin, 2011).
Monitoring is usually done continuously. It is important to consider the type of monitoring and how it would be carried out. In addition to monitoring this program, the researcher would also carry out a detailed evaluation of the program. This is done after completion of the program or at specific points in the implementation process. Evaluation calls for collection of additional data, which are related to the project (Pennig, 2006). Evaluation helps the planner to identify new problems or issues, which should become the focus of planning in future.
References
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Clarke, R., & Goldstein, H. (2002). Analysis for crime prevention. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Creswell, J. (2003). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Crotty, M. (2003). The Foundations of Social Research: meaning and perspective in the research process. London: Sage.
Gottfredson, M., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
Knepper, H. (2010). Review of “Designing and Managing Programs: An Effectiveness-Based Approach”. Administration of Social Work, 34(1), 107-108.
Leedy, P., & Ormrod, J. (2005). Practical Research: Planning and Design. Prentice Hall: Pearson.
Manning, P. (2001). Theorizing policing: The drama and myth of crime control in the NYPD. Theoretical Criminology, 5(3), 315-344.
Niskanen, W. (1994). Crime, police, and root causes, Policy Analysis. Washington, DC: Cato Institute.
Pennig, S. (2006). HPM: A model to relate costs, benefits, and strategic impact of human resource programs. Performance Improvement Journal, 11(6), 17-22.
Secret, M., Abell, M., Berlin, T. (2011). The Promise and Challenge of Practice-Research Collaborations: Guiding Principles and Strategies for Initiating, Designing, and Implementing Program Evaluation Research. Academic Journal, 56(1), 9-20.
Sherman, L. (1992). Policing domestic violence: Experiments and dilemmas. New York: Free Press.
Skogan, W. (1990). Disorder and decline. New York: Free Press.
Trojanowicz, R. (1986). Evaluating a neighborhood foot patrol program: The Flint, Michigan project. Community crime prevention: Does it work? Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.