The experience of the Native Americans, including traditional cultural aspects and interaction with the new settlers of the New World, is a theme that unifies the topics of the readings in question. Richter draws attention to the communication of Indians with Europeans and mentions both the positive factors of this interaction and the negative nuances. The author notes trade as one of the areas of development of local communities, which influenced the way of life of the Indians. At the same time, he also notes the even greater role of warfare, which came to the continent and radically changed the life of the indigenous population. Ray and Freeman also consider the innovations brought about by the arrival of Europeans in the Americas and examine the cultural innovations that had an impact on different tribes’ way of life. This concerned, for instance, the introduction of horses into daily affairs. These discussions bring together both readings, in which attention is paid to the cultural features of Indian tribes’ development from the perspective of the influence of Western culture.
Attention is also paid to language groups that have formed under the influence of the Indian-European interaction. According to Richter, the Iroquois experience was marked by war and culture, whereby they were believed to pass down their character traits from generation to generation. At the same time, the arrival of European colonists on the American content became an incentive for the adoption of cultural features, including linguistic ones. This mention is essential because such individual criteria for social development, as practice shows, are flexible and can be changed and supplemented due to the intersection of cultures.
An important aspect of both readings is the discourse on the cruelty of the native population. Regarding the Iroquois, cruelty was their main virtue and was practiced and taught to their children from the beginning of their childhood until it became their habit. The war was considered important among the Iroquois groups and even their neighbors. For decades of Euro-Americans, the importance that Indians placed on battle appeared to validate stereotypes of uncivilized killers who perpetuated violence for the sake of it. Cruelty being a virtue for them established a strong route and desire for bloodlust among them as they trained children to be brutal and wicked throughout their lives. Being involved in the war was part of training activities for the Iroquois youth. As a result, through this analysis, one can discern differences in upbringing between the native inhabitants of the continent and the colonists.
An important reference is trade, which is seen as a means of crossing two distinct cultures. The European traders managed to influence the Indian’s trading activities to a certain extent by credit manipulation and issuing gifts to the local traders. This practice affected the per capita income of Indian traders. Furthermore, big companies owned by the French and European individuals contributed to the manipulation of Indians. While considering trade in the indicated period, the conclusion comes that the penetration of the characteristic Western principles of conducting trade relations into the local Indian culture was a natural and inevitable phenomenon. Therefore, adopting the relevant features of interaction was strengthened by mutual trade.
By comparing the two readings, one can point out the distinctive tools of the description. Ray and Freeman pay more attention to the trade and economic prerequisites for the development of Indian society in the era of colonization of the country. Richter, in turn, focuses on cultural nuances, including social characteristics and contradictions that led to clashes between indigenous and colonists. According to Richter, getting used to the war helped the Iroquois people deal with their grief, especially death. Thus, the differences in the topics raised contribute to assessing the interaction of the two cultures, including both external manifestations and internal factors that brought different peoples closer and further apart during their interaction.
The texts discussed show that they have different themes, as Richter talks more about cultural features while Ray and Freeman pay more attention to the practical peculiarities of the Indian-European interaction. Practicing war was part of the natives’ heritage, and this is a crucial point to consider. The Indian people were traders, which was essential to maintain communication with colonists and earn money. The manifestation of differences in cultural perceptions of social phenomena, such as war, is reflected in both readings, although a distinctive focus on prerequisites and consequences is given. The texts contain valuable information regarding the features of establishing communication between the two cultures.
Assessing the life of the aboriginal population of Canadian lands is a topic that brings together the readings involved. At the same time, some of the authors’ approaches to reflecting the events of the second half of the 19th century in this region differ. Lutz presents the information in a more concise manner, aiming to list the key events that influenced the course of events. Daschuk, in turn, describes the political, economic, and social aspects of development in more detail and includes a discussion of American history at the time. For instance, Lutz mentions the smallpox epidemic as one of the factors that worsened the lives of the inhabitants of Canadian lands. Daschuk emphasizes the cyclic nature of the epidemic and compares the events of the 19th century with those of the first half of the 18th century when local residents also experienced the disease en masse. As a result, the latter text is more detailed, although both readings show a deep dive into the history of Canadian aboriginals.
One of the features of both texts is the analysis of the impact of political events that took place during that period, including immigration laws and the role of the authorities in resolving local problems. For example, as Daschuk states, the original inhabitants of the Northwest were forced to displacement by the European immigrants as they occupied major parts of the plains. This displacement caused clashes between the two groups, and by 1871-1877, treaties were made between nations to negotiate and have a mutual agreement on the land settlement. Lutz pays more attention to the Tsilhqot’in population as a people living in the north of the continent and notes their close attachment to the native territory. In other words, the former text describes the economic opportunities that resettlement could provide for immigrants, while the latter reading demonstrates a position on the importance of maintaining individual territory. However, both authors pay sufficient attention to immigration issues and the consequences that inadequate resettlement control policies entailed, including on the lives of indigenous people.
One of the approaches that allow both researchers to describe the target peoples’ life in their texts is the assessment of trading not only as an economic but also as an intercultural interaction mechanism. French-English conflicts in the subarctic played an important role in the growth and development of the fur trade, which many Indians promoted in their major economic activity. The Hudson Bay Company played a vital role in this economy since it entered smoothly into the economy without interrupting the French. This made it easier for the Indians to travel and contact the company if they wished to trade with the English. As evidence, Lutz cites the results of archaeological excavations confirming relevant trade trends and showing goods used by local indigenous peoples. As a result, the texts highlight the evolution of the Indian trading network, which was influenced greatly by the geographical position of the region and the location of the Indian traders.
Both texts offer detailed descriptions of the lifestyles that the locals followed. The natives faced calamities that hindered their economic growth, particularly displacement by the European immigrants, which led to constant feuds. At the same time, Lutz describes the military clashes in more detail by focusing on the social contradictions and backgrounds that led to divisions between the indigenous people and the colonists. While taking into account the evidence by Daschuk, one can note that the political checks were strong during this period, and the Western governments were not ready to accept the independence of the northern tribes. The readings describe various initiatives, up to the control of transport networks, which were designed to control the life of the indigenous population in the north and deter their attempts to achieve independence. Thus, the texts converge in describing the difficulties that the natives had to face after the arrival of the western colonists.
Given the evidence and contexts reviewed, both readings offer valid and valuable reflections on the development of the North American continent. The contribution of research to the study of lifestyles and the social, economic, and political hardships faced by the indigenous population confirms the similarity of local scenarios with those of the American Indians. The desire of Western governments to create a monopoly on trade in the local region proves the colonists’ unwillingness to recognize the natives’ independence. The considered texts are of high practical importance from the standpoint of a chronological description of the events and civil clashes taking place in that era.
The key theme that unites both readings under consideration is the background and consequences of socio-political movements among the indigenous population of North America. McCallum pays particular attention to the displacement of the indigenous Indian female population and demonstrates local women as strong characters who celebrated their strengths and struggles. They were displaced persons from their ancestral land leaving behind their race and ancestral heritage for today’s civilization. With the high rise of civilization, the displacement caused them to move to cities to look for education and jobs in urban places. Nickel describes the early nineteenth and twentieth century when Pan-Indigenous unity was propelled greatly by relevant companies, which had a strong impact on the natives’ solidarity. The local political discourse allowed for creating the Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs, which was a critical step towards building a cohesive nation. Thus, despite the similar common theme, both readings differ in the context of their research, namely the assessment of positive and negative factors that influenced the development of North American indigenous peoples.
When arguing about the hardships Indian women faced, McCallum notes that, despite the existing constraints, they were proactive in getting an education. Since the events described relate to the second half of the 20th century, this period was marked by the active use of technologies that were often inaccessible to indigenous people. However, as McCallum highlights, local women were able to work as typewriters and business ledgers and perform calculations, which speaks of the author’s study of the labor market of that era. The context of Nickel’s research is broader and mentions not only women but all indigenous people who were involved in the movement to strengthen the political position of local residents. This movement allowed the indigenous groups to elect leaders representing them in the British Columbia Conference. The leaders represented the people’s issues and concerns and shared their objectives to benefit the people, largely regarding the existing land claims and racial issues. Thus, the focus of research is different, and distinctive areas of the socio-political life of that era are considered in the two readings.
In both texts, it is evident that politics plays a vital role in the lives of the indigenous people, as demonstrated by the federal government and the Union of Chiefs. Both studies rely on official documents confirming relevant government initiatives aimed at regulating issues related to the Indian population. Moreover, in both readings, a persistent problem of oppression of indigenous people is observed. Nickel mentions the Canadian government’s unofficial motto: “the only good Indian is a non-Indian.” As McCallum states, enduring anti-Indian rhetoric has put severe pressure on Indian women by promoting their dependent roles as the main tenet of the social role assigned to them. As a result, the ideas of both authors can be characterized as those that criticize the current socio-political discourse. While McCallum reflects women’s struggles, the study by Nickel is more expansive in terms of discussing measures taken to overcome the existing social barriers. Therefore, in terms of the breadth of the evidence, the latter reading offers more arguments in support of the Indians’ methods of fighting to maintain their national identity.
While taking into account historical events, both texts use the context of past years to describe the background of the respective issues and their consequences. However, given the scope of the research, the reading by McCallum can be characterized as narrower because the main theme of the work involves assessing the problems and social barriers for women. Nickel’s historical references are general, but they also emphasize the relevance of specific government decisions to the impact on Indian life in the second half of the 20th century. The former text seeks evidence to evaluate the initiatives related to the oppression of women, while the latter reading showcases various political developments with a focus on the history of the entire Indian community. As a result, when bearing in mind the aims of both texts, they address the stated objectives effectively.
Thus, while comparing both texts, one can find it challenging to argue which of them is more credible and accurate. The justifications and facts that the researchers offer allow for understanding the key socio-political problems of the designated time. Depending on the topic, different aspects are emphasized in detail, which, however, is not a limitation and helps focus on specific issues. The organization of research structures in chronological order makes it easier to learn the materials read and reveals all the prerequisites for the relevant events.
Based on the texts read, one can note that all of them, to a greater or lesser extent, deal with the problems that the indigenous population of modern America and Canada faced. Each reading offers a unique perspective on relevant topics and raises issues of equality, racial bias, political and economic deterrents, and other barriers to normal coexistence. One of the studies reflecting the features of trade relations between Indians and immigrants from Europe is the work by Ray and Freeman. They study not only the dynamics of the trading market but also related events, particularly hostilities between the nations and general economic trends. Attention to the art of war in the work by Richter provides an opportunity to evaluate the psychology of the indigenous people, their views on self-identity, as well as characteristic cultural beliefs. In the context of studying the lifestyle of the Indians, these facts immerse the reader in the life of the indigenous population and describe the differences between their views and those of Western colonists.
Due to sufficient justification, the considered readings in many ways allow one to better learn about the features of the Indians’ life, those including in America and Canada. For instance, the text by Lutz offers a fascinating description of the characteristics of the Canadian aboriginal population, who had to defend their right to equality and independence. The inability to resist the resources and technical capabilities of colonists can be seen as one of the key reasons why the natives endured oppression. In addition, given the geopolitical interests of western leaders, the described steps to develop the northern territories of the continent ruled out loyalty to the local population. The accompanying hardships that Daschuk describes, such as diseases and starvation, made it difficult for the Indians to develop freely. The more they resisted their opponents, the more obstacles arose in their path. Therefore, the considered texts are credible and valuable resources proving the plight of the indigenous population of the continent during its active development by immigrants from the west.
The emphasis on specific manifestations of oppressive politics, such as gender discrimination, adds to the practical value of some of the readings. When addressing the problems of Indian women, McCallum lists the difficulties and barriers they had to face. This allows one to compare past events with the current historical context and identify real changes that have occurred in recent decades. Mentioning the educational and employment aspect intensifies the discussion and reveals the full range of deterrents. The analysis of national self-identity, which is clearly presented in the work by Nickel, highlights the enduring nature of the indigenous freedom movement. The reluctance to cede their land and natural wealth to colonists reflects a strong desire for independence. Moreover, the political processes within the Indian communities prove the fact that the natives were determined to resolve the problems not only through war but also through peaceful means. Therefore, all the readings reviewed confirm that even in the face of social, political, and economic pressures, preserving local wealth has always been one of the main goals of the indigenous people of North America.
Bibliography
Daschuk, James. Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. Regina: University of Regina Press, 2013.
Lutz, John. “The Tsilhqotin.” In Makúk: A New History of Aboriginal-White Relations, 119-62. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2008.
McCallum, Mary Jane Logan. “Introduction.” In Indigenous Women, Work and History 1940-1980, 3-20. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2014.
Nickel, Sarah A. Assembling Unity: Indigenous Politics, Gender and the Union of BC Indian Chiefs. Vancouver: UBC Press, 2019.
Ray, Arthur J., and Donald Freeman. ‘Give Us Good Measure’: An Economic Analysis of Relations between the Indians and the Hudson’s Bay Company before 1763. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978.
Richter, Daniel K. “War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience.” In Trade, Land, and Power: The Struggle for Eastern North America, 69-96. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.