Theoretical reasons that explain immigration
In the recent years, there has been a robust increase in the volume of international immigration. Countries, such as Australia, Canada and the United States of America have been known to receive a significant increase in the number of immigrants from various origins. Numerous studies that have been carried out to indicate that there is no single theory that explains the concept of international immigration.
However, there are a number of fragmented theoretical factors that give reasons for international migration. Massey et. al argue that push and pull factors are the major causes of international migrations (433). Examples of push factors are low wages, deficiency of healthcare and high-level of unemployment in a country. On the other hand, the pull factors are low unemployment in a country and high wages in another region.
These factors will motivate people to leave their countries. The Neoclassical Economics theorists state that the main cause of labor migration is wage differentials and labor market mechanisms (Massey et al. 437). Thus, an individual will first estimate the cost and benefits that will come with the migration. If migration yields positive returns to the individual, then this will be an incentive for them to migrate.
Further, the New Economics of Migration argues that international migration does not stop once wage differential stops (Massey et al. 438). The group also states that families, rather than an individual, count when making migration decisions. The two theories state that the policies implemented can help reduce the size of migration. Such policies should be implemented in the country of origin and country of destination.
The third model that explains the international migration is the Historical-Structural Theory. The theory states that international migration is instigated by uneven distribution of political and economic power.
Fourth, the Worlds System Theory argues that infiltration of industrial economic relations into non-industrial creates a population that is itinerant. The mobile population can easily migrate. The final theory, Social Capital Theory, states that international migration will expand until the individuals who are willing to migrate do that with ease.
The theory further mentions that controlling immigration based employment may not be successful. These five theories give the theoretical underpinnings of why people migrate. Besides, they suggest ways which governments of various countries can use to control immigration. Therefore, international migration cannot be explained wholly by one factor (Massey et al. 433).
U.S Immigration policies
In the early years, the United States had an open policy to immigration. Thus, immigrants from different origins were allowed in the country. Data shows that in the seventeenth century, over 75% of the population was made up of the foreign-born. The first immigration act was passed in 1790. This act allowed only immigrants from European and Caucasian descent.
The second Act was ratified in 1882. It was aimed at prohibiting immigrants of Asian desend. Between 1872 and 1890, laws were passed with regard to the moral composition of the immigrants. Based on the laws, such groups as criminals and prostitutes were prohibited from getting into the country.
In this case, the US government was concerned over the influence these groups would have on the natives. Between 1900 and 1921, the US Congress came up with a quota system. The system allowed a specific number of immigrants from a given ethnic origin. In 1924, the Congress passed laws that aimed at tightening security at the borders. This was aimed at reducing illegal immigrants from Mexico and Canada.
A liberal law was passed in 1948 to allow displaced people as a result of the World War to settle in the country. In 1965, the Congress came up with laws that allowed immigrants based on their needs. Therefore, the quota system was abolished. In the 1980s, the Congress passed laws that aimed at improving security at the border. This was necessitated by the rapid increase in the population of immigrants in the country.
Further, the congress came up with punitive measures for organizers of illegal immigration. In 1996, laws were passed to enhance security at the border even more. Therefore, it can be noted that in the recent years, immigration laws have aimed at reducing the number of illegal immigrants in the country.
This gives indication that the country is facing challenges in containing the growing number of illegal immigrants (America Immigration Council 1).
Statistics of the Japanese
The population of Japanese in the US is quite low, as shown by the numbers. The United States citizens greatly outweight the Japanese population with 269,292,976 peeoplle compared to only 352,933 of the Japanese. These are numbers that relate to the general population while the Japanese who were foreign born count up to 325,800, as compared to the US citizens foreign born, which make up 39,938,268.
It is possible to say that the majoriy of the Japanese people in the US are foreign born, but an overwhelming majority of the US citizens are born in the States. Out of those three houndred thousand plus Japanese people, only 109,702 are American citizens while 243,231 are not.
Out of almost three hundred million Americans, 21,877,811 are non-citizen, and 16,181,833 are citizens. Proportianatelly, the numbers for the US are much lower, which goes to show that the majority are born in the United States.
Median Age
The median age of the foreign born Japanese is 41,9 and the US is 40,2. Those born domestically average 45 for the Japanese and 35,8 for the Americans. It is clear that there is a very close similarity between the age which leads to conclude that people have common preferences.
The median age for citizens is also close to 40 for the Japanese and 38,6 for the US. Non-citizens for the US are 36, and 44 for the Japanese. The people from the United States tend to be a little younger which leads to suppose that there is somewhat of a comfort level within the culture and environmental conditions.
Marriage and Education
The numbers of people who are married are almost half for the Japanese at 175,492 who were foreign born, 15,832 domestically born, 59,091 for the citizens and 131,016 for those who are non-citizen. For the United States the numbers are much greater, reaching 116,751,149.
It is interesting to note that for both the United States and Japanese people, High School and some college have the lowest numbers compared to those with less education than highschool, and those with a Bacheloer’s Degree or higher.
For the Japanese, education less than highschool is approxiamtelly 170,000, high school 53,000, some college 64,000 and BA or higher is 126,000.
For the United States these numbers are much different in proportion with high school or less at 29,000,000, high school 58,000,000, some college 59,000,000 and BA or higher 58,000,000. In comparison, those with the lowest education make up the least of the population while the rest are more educated, as compared to the Japanese population.
Labour Force
The unemployment rates are relatively low with 7,016 of the Japanese who were foreign born, 633 nationally born, 2,362 citizens of the US and 5, 238 for non-citizens. Unemployement rates for the US nationals is 16,092,740. The majority of the Japanese work in the white division with 118,987, but for the US nationals the majority are in the service section at 211,126,699.
Then, comes the white and blue for the United States, and it is in the same order for the Japanese as well. Those with medical insurance count up to 27, 829 of the foreign born Japanese people, 2,511 domestically born, 9,370 who are citizens and 20,776 non-citizens. For the United States, this number is at 46,173,492 which is proportianatelly somewhat lower than for the Japanese population.
Policy Issue
Studies that have been carried out link automatic citizenship to the increase in the number of illegal immigrants in the United Stated who cannot be accounted for. The illegal immigrants have made a decision to build a better life in the United States. Therefore, they achieve this through avenues, such as birth tourism or other loopholes in the immigration laws.
Based on this argument, the main motivation for birth tourism is the search for employment and better economic conditions in the US. In the recent years, there have been several mixed reactions on the effect of the increase in the population of the Japanese and other foreign born to the growing number of illegal immigrants in the country.
Even though there are no accurate statistics on the total number of illegal immigrants, research conducted by various bodies, such as the Migration Policy Institute, indicates that the increase in the population of the foreign born results in the raise in the population of the illegal immigrants in the country.
Currently, US congress focuses on improving border security and other issues related to citizenship. There are a number of policy concerns about the effect of the increasing population of the illegal immigrants on US immigrants. One major concern is that the high population of the illegal immigrants results in an increase enormous movement of funds from the immigrants to their home countries.
Based on the immigration theories discussed in the section above, it can be pointed out that one of the factors that motivate people to migrate is search for job opportunities. Therefore, the main aim of the immigrants in the US is to look for work and improve their lifestyle and those of their family members. Therefore, once they get jobs, the immigrants sent their earnings back to their family members.
This outflow of cash has negative impact on US economy. For instance, a study conducted by the Inter-American Development Bank indicates that the Latino workers sent more than $60 billion to their family members in 2012 (Inter-American Development Bank 1). This was an increase from $300 million reported in 2011. Secondly, the immigrants affect the minimum wages of the native workers.
However, studies show that the impact of the immigrants is felt on low-skilled workers. The argument is based on the fact that immigrants caused an increase in competition in the market, and that in turn resulted in low wages. Surveys conducted indicate that the absence of immigrants increased the wages of the low-skilled employees by about 4% to 9% (Inter-American Development Bank 1).
Thirdly, the immigrants cause an increase in the cost of education in the US. This can be attributed to the fact that when they get into the country, they need to learn so that they can remain competitive in the job market. This creates an increase in demand for education and a subsequent increase in the cost of education.
Statistics show that about one million eight hundred thousand illegal children attend local schools at a cost of seven thousand five hundred dollars per year. This generates a total cost of $11.2 billion. These statistics were released in the year 2006. The most recent statistics were released in 2009. It indicated that the cost of educating the illegal children had escalated to thirty billion dollars.
This does not include the spendings for higher level of education. Also, the illegal immigrants increase the cost of health care in the country. The politicians are of the opinion that the increasing trend of the illegal immigrants affects politics and voting arrangements.
They argue that the politicians use the topic of immigration as a campaign strategy without taking into account the effect of the increasing number of immigrants in the country. Further, they state that an increase in the population of immigrants will overburden the government in term of provision of public resources.
On the other hand, US economy gains from the illegal immigrants in a number of ways. First, an increase in the population of the illegal immigrants results in an increase in consumer demand. The increase in demand acts as a spending stimulus in the US. It is estimated that the total population of the immigrants generates spending worth $150 billion per year.
Secondly, the Japanese immigrants contribute to the economy through taxation. Finally, the immigrants benefit the economy through a reduction of the minimum wages for the low-skilled workers. This leads to a reduction of the price level in the economy. An overall cost – benefit analysis of the effect of the illegal immigrants indicates that they are costly to US economy.
Policy recommendations
The growing population of the Japanese in the USA has an impact on the total population of illegal immigrants in the country. The statistics presented in the table above indicate that there is an increase in the population of the Japanese residents in the United States after 1965. One major avenue used by the illegal immigrants is giving birth in the country through tourism so that their children can get US citizenship.
The second avenue is using temporary visas to get into the country as they fail to return to their home country. Therefore, there are a number of policies that can be implemented to reduce the increase in the number of immigrants.
The first policy recommendation is that US government needs to implement measures that will assist in the identification, preventing and reprimanding illegal immigrants in the country. Examples of the avenues are the immigrants who come to the country using temporary visas, for tourism or for a visit to relatives and fail to return back home.
At the moment, the United States does not have laws that prohibit the immigrants from taking advantage of the provisional or tourist visas to prolong their stay in the country. Lack of such policies in the country has led to the rapid growth of the illegal immigrants in the country. Thus, US Congress needs to amend the Immigration and Nationality Act especially on areas that govern the issuance of visas.
The change should aim at empowering law enforcement agents. They should be given additional mandates in their work that will enable them to identify, prevent and reprimand illegal immigrants.
This policy will be effective because it will deal with prevention of the possible avenues used by illegal immigrants to get into the country hence it will reduce the rate of increase of the population of illegal immigrants in the country (U.S. Commission on immigration reform 1).
The second policy recommendation is to tighten security at the border points. Enhancing security at the border point should focus on boarder management. This may require an increase in the resources required for the prevention of illegal entry, training of staff members at the border points, creating a rapid response team that can deal with emergencies, and fence the border points.
The second way of improving border security is by improving coordination between various government agencies. The third way is by improving the verification of documents at the border. This will eliminate possibility of illegal immigrants getting into the country. Therefore, eliminating security border will eliminate the number of immigrations who get into the country through the border illegally.
The final policy recommendation will deal with the avenue of birth through tourism or on temporary visas. The policy suggests that automatic citizenship granted to children born in the United States should be abolished. This proposed policy faces a number of criticisms.
First, the Migration Policy Institute states that annulling the automatic citizenship that is granted to children born in the US does not solve the problems in the immigration system. Statistics carried out by the Institute and the international immigration policies indicate that the immigrant come to the country to seek for job opportunities, escape from oppression in their home countries, or pay visit to their families living in the US.
Therefore, their ultimate goal is not to acquire the US citizenship. Thus, coming up with a policy that touches on the automatic citizenship at birth will not solve the problem.
The institute further outlines that Congress should focus on “addressing immigration issues by reforming the immigration laws in a way that fairly addresses the economic and labor needs in the country, unites American families and ensure that there are legal channels to enter and stay in the US” (America Immigration Council 1).
Secondly, various groups believe that preventing the growing number of the illegal immigrants cannot be done by eliminating the automatic citizenship at birth because of the difficulties in the process of changing laws in the country.
Further, the Migration Policy Institute opines that annulling the automatic citizenship of the children born in the United States irrespective of their citizenship will result in a severe increase in the number of illegal immigrants because even at the moment the country does not have accurate statistics of the immigrants (America Immigration Council 1).
The Institute states that currently there is a high population of immigrants in the United States who are not registered, and abolishing automatic citizenship will escalate this number (America Immigration Council 1).
The Institutes argues that abolishing the automatic citizenship could increase oppression to the children so that they may lack amenities because they will not belong to any country. A final suggestion is to increase charges for the citizenship for children born in the US.
Works Cited
America Immigration Council. Eliminating Birthright Citizenship Would Not Solve the Problem of Unauthorized Immigration. 2011. Web.
Inter-American Development Bank. Remittances Flows to Latin America and the Carribean Remain Stable at $61bn. 2013. Web.
Massey, Douglas, Joaquin Arango, Graeme Hugo, Ali Kouaouci, Adela Pellegrino, and Edward Taylor. “Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal.” Population and Development Review 19.3(1993): 431 – 466. Print.
U.S. Commission on immigration reform. U.S. Immigration Policy: Restoring Credibility. 1994. Web.
United States Census Bureau. American Community Survey. 2013. Web.