Summary
The topic of significant interest is the causes and effects of antibiotic resistance. This is one of the burning concerns in global health care as antibiotics have enabled people to treat serious infections, but their effectiveness is decreasing due to bacteria growing resistance (Chokshi et al., 2019). No effective alternatives to antibiotics have been developed so far, which makes people prone to infectious diseases and vulnerable to epidemics and pandemics.
I chose this topic as it directly has and may have an impact on my health and the health status of my close ones. I have a relatively rich medical history, as I had multiple respiratory infections in my childhood, so I had to use antibiotics. I may be quite vulnerable to new diseases (COVID-19 is a bright illustration of hazards), so I would like to know more about the causes and effects of antibiotic resistance. This topic is an important area for research in nursing as nurses are responsible for the administration of antibiotics, patients’ health condition assessment, and, in many cases, prescriptions, as well as educating patients on the associated risks.
The major causes of antibiotic resistance are the misuse of this medication and its utilization in food production (and farming). The effects of antibiotic use are associated with increased risks to public health as people are becoming vulnerable to various infectious diseases.
I will use the following keywords: antibiotic resistance, causes and effects, and nursing. I will search with the help of such databases as PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct.
Numerous articles are available on the topic, and I am able to choose among studies that shed light on diverse aspects of the issue. As the focus is on causes and effects, I decided not to use nursing among the keywords to narrow my search. As a result, I located two valuable sources that can become central to my examination of the topic.
Article 1
Chokshi, A., Sifri, Z., Cennimo, D., & Horng, H. (2019). Global contributors to antibiotic resistance. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases, 11(1), 36-42. Web.
The article under analysis is written by Chokshi et al. (2019) and is concerned with the causes of antibiotic resistance on a global scale. The researchers concentrate on the contributors to the problem in developing and developed countries. Chokshi et al. (2019) implemented a qualitative literature review of the articles published between 1963 and 2017. The studies that did not mention the causes of antibiotic resistance concentrated on the molecular basis of antibiotic resistance, or were published in a language other than English were excluded. As a result, 2281 studies on developing nations and 1227 publications on developed countries were screened, and the overall number of articles included in the literature review was 31 (Chokshi et al., 2019). Out of these 31 articles, 18 pieces were on developing states and 13 publications on developed nations. The authors also referred to several reports published by the Centers of Disease Control (CDC), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
The researchers note that fundamental causes of antibiotic resistance in developing nations include the lack of resistant development surveillance, clinical misuse, poor quality of antibiotics, and the high availability of this kind of medication. For developed countries, the major contributors to increasing antibiotic resistance are the excessive use of antibiotics in farming and a low level of control over antibiotic use in healthcare facilities (Chokshi et al., 2019). The researchers also emphasize that the current research on new antibiotics or alternatives is relatively slow and insufficient, which is a global contributor to enhancing antibiotic resistance. Policymakers should develop regulations promoting the research on new antibiotics other ways to treat specific diseases (Chokshi et al., 2019). It is concluded that more sustainable regulatory measures are necessary for both developed and developing nations to slow down antibiotic resistance. The implications of this article may have far-reaching effects as the research can become the ground for the development of strict regulations of antibiotic use and can facilitate research of new antibiotics or their alternatives.
The article in question is a reliable and valuable source of information for the proposed study on the causes and effects of antibiotic resistance. The authors’ credentials suggest they are knowledgeable and unbiased, so the findings and conclusions are relevant and reliable. The employed methodology is also sound, so the results of the study are valid. Notably, the findings reported in the publication under consideration are consistent with the conclusions made in other studies. For instance, Li and Webster (2017) also state that the misuse of antibiotics and the low pace of research on new antibiotics and alternative treatment measures are major causes of increasing antibiotic resistance.
The article by Chokshi et al. (2019) is a valuable source for my research on the causes and effects of antibiotic resistance because it provides essential insights into the primary contributors of antibiotic resistance. This publication is helpful to nursing and can contribute to the advancement of the practice as it provides insights into the causes of the problem. Nurses aware of the misuse of antibiotics would be more willing to advocate for patient best outcomes and reasonable use of antibiotics. The article adds to the existing knowledge base on the matter and serves as additional evidence related to the factors leading to the enhancement of antibiotic resistance. Although I was aware of the primary causes of resistance to antibiotics, the article helped me gain insights into the difference related to the contributors to the problem between developed and developing countries.
Article 2
Pulia, M., Kern, M., Schwei, R., Shah, M., Sampene, E., & Crnich, C. (2018). Comparing appropriateness of antibiotics for nursing home residents by the setting of prescription initiation: a cross-sectional analysis. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 7(1), 1-8. Web.
The article by Pulia et al. (2018) deals with the use of antibiotics in the healthcare setting. The purpose of the study under consideration is to examine the characteristics of antibiotic therapy among nursing home (NH) residents and compare its appropriateness in terms of prescription initiation. The retrospective cross-sectional multi-center study was implemented to address the research objectives. The researchers analyzed the data obtained from several NH locations in Wisconsin between 2013 and 2014 (Pulia et al., 2018). The patients with lower respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin and soft tissue infections were included in the study. The appropriateness of antibiotic prescription was measured with the help of the Loeb criteria grounded on the data from the NH. Such statistical data as the Chi-square test and logistic regression were utilized to compare the appropriateness of antibiotic use by infection types and setting.
According to the results of the study, approximately 87% of antibiotic prescriptions were initiated in NH, 8.3% were started in an outpatient setting, and 4.6% were created in the emergency department (Pulia et al., 2018). At that, inappropriate antibiotic use was identified in almost 81% of outpatient clinic prescriptions, 73.3% of emergency department initiations, and nearly 56% of NH prescriptions. Pulia et al. (2018) conclude that antibiotic prescriptions in outpatient clinics are associated with the highest level of misuse of this medication. The researchers also stress that further investigation of the use of antibiotics in outpatient settings is necessary to decrease the instance of antibiotic misuse.
The article in question is a useful source for the proposed research as it provides detailed insights into a particular case of antibiotic misuse. The authors are experts in the field of medication use as they have degrees in emergency medicine and public health. The study is a relevant source of reliable and valid data because the researchers utilized proper research design and methods. Sound statistical tests were used, so the data could be generalized and can serve as evidence needed for further exploration of the topic (Pulia et al., 2018). The data were collected over a year, and several healthcare facilities participated in the study, which also suggests that the generalizability of findings is high. The conclusions made by Pulia et al. (2018) are consistent with other studies on the matter, as the misuse of antibiotics in the healthcare setting is seen as one of the leading causes of antibiotic misuse (Li & Webster, 2017; Chokshi et al., 2019). Importantly, the study by Pulia et al. (2018) provides data regarding a specific case that illustrates the exact mechanisms affecting the severity of the problem on a global scale.
This article is valuable for my research as it provides specific data regarding a particular case in the healthcare setting. The report makes a considerable contribution to the nursing practice because it unveils specific instances of antibiotic misuse. Nurses, especially those working in outpatient environments, should be more cautious and become active advocates for patient needs. The article did not provide any surprising information, but it was instrumental in developing the understanding of exact gaps in the healthcare setting.
Article 3
Durdu, B., Meric Koc, M., Hakyemez, I. N., Akkoyunlu, Y., Daskaya, H., Sumbul Gultepe, B., & Aslan, T. (2019). Risk factors affecting patterns of antibiotic resistance and treatment efficacy in extreme drug resistance in intensive care unit-acquired Klebsiella Pneumoniae infections: A 5-year analysis. Medical Science Monitor, 25, 174-183. Web.
The article under analysis is concerned with the causes and effects of drug resistance with the focus on Klebsiella Pneumoniae infections. The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that influence antibiotic resistance in an intensive care unit related to Klebsiella Pneumoniae hospital-acquired infections. Additionally, the authors aimed to determine the effects of the use of medication in patients with high-level antibiotic resistance on patient survival. The present retrospective study was implemented at an adult intensive care unit of an urban hospital. Data collection took place between 1 January 2021 and 31 May 2017. The participants’ lifespans measured the effectiveness of the antibiotics used.
The study included 208 patients (63% males and 27% females) with a median age of 67.5 years and a median stay in a hospital of 16.5 days. The crude mortality rate of the participants during their follow-up was 70% (Durdu et al., 2019). Descriptive statistics to describe the participants’ characteristics were utilized, and Kruskal-Wallis analysis was employed to compare the averages of quantitative attributes, and post hoc Dunn tests were used for multiple comparisons (Durdu et al., 2019). The effects of treatments were measured with the help of the multivariate statistical method.
It was found that although combining medication in the presence of antibiotic resistance is an efficient practice, some drugs are not suitable for this therapy. In many cases, there were delays in prescribing an adequate remedy, which led to a shorter lifespan. Durdu et al. (2019) found that the patients prescribed a combination of tigecycline and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole had longer survival times considerably. It is suggested that trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole can be an effective alternative as the basis of the antibiotic combinations utilized to address hospital-acquired infections.
The article in question is a valuable source for the present research as it provides an in-depth analysis of a particular case that illustrates the effects of antibiotic misuse. The article’s findings show that the current pharmacological practices have limited effectiveness and contribute to increased levels of antibiotic resistance (Durdu et al., 2019). Due to the sound methodology employed in this study, the findings are valid and expand the knowledge base on the issue under analysis. At that, the small sample poses certain limitations to the generalizability of data as the patients of one hospital took part in the research. It is also noteworthy that this article’s findings are consistent with other studies that display the correlation between antibiotic misuse in hospitals and antibiotic resistance. For instance, similar to Durdu et al. (2019), Pulia et al. (2018) also examine a specific case and find a direct link between the existing practices and antibiotic resistance. Li and Webster (2017) provide more general information on the matter, which shows that the case under analysis can be seen as an illustration of the apparent trend.
The article by Durdu et al. (2019) can be helpful for researchers and practitioners as it sheds light on the use of certain antibiotics. Researchers can use it as a starting point for further research or can utilize similar methods that were validated in the present study. Practitioners can also use it to develop and implement effective care plans and provide high-quality care. The use of a combination of antibiotics can be a way to decrease the antibiotic resistance rate in the population, but more research is needed in this area.