Introduction
The years from 1877 to 1916 were pivotal in American history, marking the transition from a regional to a global power. During this period, the United States underwent several transformations in its government, economy, and military that would later enable it to become a global powerhouse. The United States was a model capitalist nation with a stable economy and a strong authoritarian party that could maintain order, enabling it to survive virtually independently (Trigkas 750). The American culture and liberal nationalism strongly influenced this organizational style. Several factors contributed to America’s rise to the title of “world power,” including the collapse of Europe, international economic ambitions, industrialization, military influence, natural resources, human capital, and the war with Spain, which resulted in significant gains for America.
Prerequisites for America Becoming a Global Superpower
There were significant political shifts during this period that contributed to the United States’ ascent to global prominence. The country’s political and economic climate was conducive to growth, thanks to its system of governance that prioritizes personal liberty, democracy, and free-market capitalism. At this time, the United States’ foreign policy shifted dramatically, from isolationism to imperialism.
The nation’s burgeoning economy and the necessity to expand exports prompted the policy shift. A further motivation was the need to safeguard US investments in regions such as Latin America and the Pacific. In 1898, the US went to war with Spain, resulting in the acquisition of the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico, as well as control over Cuba (Trigkas 752). This was a watershed moment, signaling a more assertive stance by the United States in international affairs.
In the late nineteenth century, the United States decided to end its lengthy period of isolation. As a result of its history of colonialism under the British Empire, the United States has avoided joining any international coalitions or plots (Hemmis 135). Until recently, it had not wanted to be an empire on its own, but a variety of factors have made that a necessity. Other countries, notably those in Asia and Europe, were ardently vying for the boundaries of young nations(Trigkas 751). This indicated to America that if it did not participate in the scramble, the major powers would leave it behind.
America was once the world’s leading industrial power, but this status would last only as long as consumers continued to buy its products. Markets within the United States of America became scarce around the end of the nineteenth century, necessitating the acquisition of new territories (Kagan 16). Due to the ferocious desire to conquer sparked by this, America, once an isolated country, eventually developed into an empire and then a superpower.
Spanish-American War
There were reports of rebels in Cuba fighting against the Spanish government before the United States had decided how to capture the young country. Fighting for independence from the Spanish, the rebels (Guerrillas) eventually provoked a US declaration of war and American intervention on the Cubans’ behalf. The United States gained the support of other countries by producing publications that spread the falsehood that Cubans were suffering at the hands of Spain (Kraaz 89). Given that Spain had incarcerated large numbers of Cubans in facilities with terrible hygiene, this was partially true.
US armed forces were dispatched to Cuba to secure the island nation for the benefit of American citizens residing there and their property (Hemmis 35). The victor was quickly apparent, as the American troops were far superior to their more jaded Spanish counterparts. The war ended with Spain losing, and the US required Cuba to allow their involvement in Cuban affairs, although they promised not to annex Cuba (Kraaz 91). The United States became a global superpower as a direct result of the Spanish-American War and the subsequent annexation of territories like Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam.
The end of the 19th century marked the emergence of the United States as a major global player, bringing about a significant shift in the international landscape. The US believed that it had a unique moral endowment and considered it morally right to extend its influence beyond its borders. The US Civil War preoccupied the nation, causing some European powers to overlook the Monroe Doctrine.
However, during the Cuban uprising in 1895, Spain sent around 50,000 troops to the island, and tensions rose when a Spanish warship fired at an American vessel (Kraaz 96). The US had significant trade interests in Cuba, including mineral extraction and sugar business investments, and was sympathetic to the Cuban rebels’ quest for autonomy. The rebels’ propaganda campaign escalated the conflict, and Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler to handle the situation in Cuba in 1896 (Kraaz 98). Despite multiple provocations from the US, Spain tried to avoid war. Nevertheless, in April 1898, the US declared war on Spain and emerged victorious, thereby acquiring a position of world power.
It was not until the Treaty of Paris was signed in December 1898 that the war finally ended, and Cuba gained its independence. However, Spain returned control of American territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Kraaz (99) estimates that it cost the United States around $20,000,000 to acquire the countries.
Even after the Cuban government was set up, the US military remained there until 1902. The Platt Amendment, which imposed the following restrictions, was tacked onto Cuba’s constitution after the conflict ended. This Amendment restricted Cuba from making treaties with other nations without US acknowledgment, from borrowing beyond its means, and mandated US intervention in the event of breaches of law and order.
The US also managed a cleanliness program in Cuba and retained control of Guantanamo Bay until 1999 (Kagan 36). After agreeing to purchase Panama from Colombia for $10,000,000 in February 1904, the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty went into effect (Kraaz 100). This was the reason the Panama Canal was finally completed in 1914. There was a rebellion in Rico in 1909 between independence campaigners and supporters of the US occupation.
Reconstruction
The period from 1865 to 1877 was known as the Reconstruction era in the US. There were several attempts made after the American Civil War to undo the adverse effects of slavery and its legacy in American politics, society, and the economy. The nation was also eager to find a resolution to the issues that would arise from readmitting 11 states to the Union (Byman 55).
After successfully implementing the 13th Amendment, which abolished slavery in the United States, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated before the Amendment could be approved (Grose et al. 405). Congress created the Freedmen’s Bureau to mediate conflicts between black and white southerners over issues such as land ownership, employment, and politics. Field Order 15 was issued after the war and redistributed confiscated Confederate territory (Byman 67). The Freedmen’s Bureau continued this practice later on after its adoption. After being elected president, Andrew Johnson restored property rights to former owners and advocated for more autonomy for Southern states.
Unfortunately, Johnson and the agency failed to recognize the severe racial discrimination and class conflict that existed in the South. The practice of Sharecropping, in which African People rented land from landlords in exchange for exploitative debt ties, revealed the federal government’s true intentions (Byman 87). They did not guarantee a just disposition toward the formerly enslaved. It was a campaign promise made by Rutherford B. Hayes in the South during the 1876 election, stating that if elected, he would withdraw federal troops from the area (Kagan 57). Early termination of interracial democracy in 1877, after Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president and subsequent fulfillment of the pledge, dealt the death blow to the Reconstruction effort.
Post-Reconstruction
A new political order emerged in the United States following the Reconstruction era. Federal legislation and constitutional amendments have significantly altered the nature of the American political system and the rights and responsibilities of its citizens. Grose et al. (402) argue that the rise of the Republican Party can be traced back to the political activism of both black and white Americans.
Moreover, Congress was strengthened by the 1866 midterm elections (Grose et al. 410). With the passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments between 1868 and 1870, Americans were afforded a measure of legal security (Grose et al. 411). A shift in the political system occurred following the granting of equal rights to African Americans. The election of the first black senators and other political officials in former Confederate strongholds was a defining moment in Radical Reconstruction.
Despite the many factors that contributed to the US’s rise to world power during this period, some challenges and controversies accompanied this transformation. One of the most significant challenges was the question of race relations. The US was still grappling with the legacy of slavery during this period, with African Americans facing widespread discrimination and violence. The country’s rise to world power did little to address these issues, and in some cases, its actions overseas reinforced racist attitudes and policies (Trigkas 752).
Another challenge was the growing divide between the rich and the poor in the US. The country’s economic growth was accompanied by significant inequality, with wealthy industrialists and business owners accumulating vast fortunes while many workers struggled to make ends meet (Byman 99). This inequality contributed to social unrest and political conflict, and it also made the US vulnerable to labor strikes and other forms of disruption.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the period between 1877 and 1916 was a critical time in the history of the United States, marking the country’s transformation from a regional power to a global one. A combination of economic growth, political developments, and military power drove the US’s rise to world power. While many benefits accompanied the US’s rise to world power, it was also marked by significant challenges and controversies. The legacy of slavery, racial inequality, and economic inequality remained major issues during this period, and the US’s imperialist policies were controversial both domestically and internationally. Despite these challenges, the US continued to expand its global influence during this period, laying the groundwork for its eventual status as a 20th-century superpower.
Works Cited
Byman, Daniel. “White supremacy, terrorism, and the failure of Reconstruction in the United States.” International Security, vol. 46 no. 1, 2021, 53-103.
Grose, Christian R., and Abby K. Wood. “Randomized experiments by government institutions and American political development.” Public Choice, vol. 185, no. 1, 2020, 401-413.
Hemmis, Timothy C. “The Federalist Era and US Foreign Relations.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. 2019.
Kagan, Richard L. The Spanish Craze: America’s Fascination with the Hispanic World, 1779-1939. U of Nebraska Press, 2019.
Kraaz, Sarah Mahler. “The Spanish–American War.” Music and War in the United States. Routledge, 2018. 87-102.
Trigkas, Vasilis. “Unrivaled: why America will remain the world’s sole superpower.” International Affairs, 2019,750-752.