Few discussion topics attract as much attention as violence does. Although it is one of the most important staples of human history, there is considerable confusion and numerous misconceptions regarding violence in modern society. The complexity of modern life determines the variety of this phenomenon. In order to understand the exact nature of violence in contemporary society, it is essential to explore the current scientific outlook on the origins, causes, and solutions to violence. The analysis of literature will showcase current manifestations of violence and nuances in public perception of them.
Hartmann, E. (2017) ‘Violence: constructing an emerging field of sociology’, International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 11, pp. 1-9.
This paper focuses on the resurging scientific interest in violence in sociology. Hartmann (2017, p. 8) argues that the current understanding of violence is limited by “the tendency to treat it as a primarily moral or political problem, instead of conceiving violence as a social fact”. Acknowledging violence as a fact is important because it removes judgment from the analysis of the phenomenon. The author believes that by acknowledging the role of violence in shaping power, sociology can outline a comprehensive definition of both violence and power.
This article is significant to the explored topic because it showcases the current sociological outlook on the nature of violence. Violence is generally perceived as a strictly negative phenomenon that should be minimized. Yet, Hartmann’s argument that violence is a fact that has to be acknowledged is similar to Menge’s (2022, p. 783) viewpoint that violence is an essential constituent of power and order. The implication is that it is inappropriate to apply moral judgment to violence.
Menge, T. (2022) ‘Violence and the materiality of power’, Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 25(6), pp. 761-786.
This paper explores the relationship between violence and state power. Menge’s (2022, p. 761) primary concern is the societal tendency to depoliticize violence. Most of the theoretical discussion is focused on such manifestations of violence as genocide, terrorism, tyranny, and other examples that are not viewed as part of the political sphere. Meanwhile, Menge argues that violence is a political phenomenon since it allows the state to ensure order. Unless the government is able to control and direct violence, order and justice cannot be ensured.
This paper is important to understanding violence for two reasons. First, it advocates violence as a necessary constituent of power that ensures order. Second, Menge accentuates the importance of non-physical manifestations of violence, such as disciplinary practices. Menge’s practical overview of state violence complements Hartmann’s (2017, p. 1) conception of violence as a social fact. Both researchers outline the sociological perspective on the necessity of violence in ensuring order.
Armstrong, E.A., Gleckman-Krut, M. and Johnson, L. (2018) ‘Silence, power, and inequality: an intersectional approach to sexual violence’, Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), pp. 99-122.
This paper focuses on the sexual manifestation of violence, which contributes directly to social inequalities. Armstrong, Gleckman-Krut, and Johnson (2018, p. 99) make an argument that the public ignorance of sexual violence is reinforced by continued silence exercised by society and the scientific community. Starting from the erasure of rape incidence in wars from the public memory to the nuances in defining violence itself, the overall perception of this topic is continuously obfuscated.
This paper is important because it raises two important points about violence. First, the authors note the elusive nature of violence, which makes it difficult to identify. Distinguishing violence is a recurring theme in research, which is also addressed by Möller-Leimkühler (2018, p. 125) and Kleinot (2017, p. 280). Second, the paper points to silence and ignorance as determinants of violence, which is also accentuated by Scheff, Daniel, and Sterphone (2018, p.109) and Stone-Mediatore (2019, p. 542). In essence, sexual violence is caused by the lack of awareness.
Scheff, T., Daniel, G.R. and Sterphone, J. (2018) ‘Shame and a theory of war and violence’, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 39, pp. 109-115.
This paper analyzes wars as another manifestation of violence in modern society. Scheff, Daniel, and Sterphone (2018, p.109) argue that emotions play an important role in causing violence. They believe that the traditional explanation of war as an inherently logical and material struggle for resources is incorrect. Instead, it is proposed that negative emotions and shame, specifically, are the primary causative factors of many wars. Society’s inability to handle shame leads to overreaction, vengeance, and revanchist feelings.
This paper is important to the topic for three reasons. First, it explores the causes of violence using contemporary scientific knowledge. Second, it stresses the often neglected importance of emotions in explaining the actions of political leaders and countries. Third, it raises the problem of public lack of awareness and ignorance of an important issue. The implication is that many conflicts and in the contemporary time could have been avoided had emotional intelligence been a part of general education.
Stone-Mediatore, S. (2019) ‘How America disguises its violence: colonialism, mass incarceration, and the need for resistant imagination’. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 22(5), pp. 542-561.
This paper delves into the topic of state-organized violence using the United States as an example. Stone-Mediatore (2019, p. 542) points to mass incarcerations as the immediate expression of violence directed by the state. However, the use of imprisonment as punishment is used on such a frequent basis that the general population does not see it as an extraordinary measure. The author believes that social indifference to the fate of convicts and their living conditions is directly responsible for the perpetuation of state-organized violence.
This source is significant since it highlights a specific violence-related issue in America. It also accentuates the role of silence and ignorance in allowing violence to exist. In a similar way Armstrong, Gleckman-Krut, and Johnson (2018, p. 99) frame public ignorance as the reason for sexual crimes, Stone-Mediatore highlights public acceptance of mass incarcerations as the primary factor of state violence. The less the public is aware of the suffering the less it is willing to empathize.
Katsiyannis, A., Whitford, D.K. and Ennis, R.P. (2018) ‘Historical examination of United States intentional mass school shootings in the 20th and 21st centuries: implications for students, schools, and society’, Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(8), pp. 2562-2573.
This paper focuses on the phenomenon of school shootings, which continue to constitute an important part of violence in modern America. Katsiyannis, Whitford, and Ennis (2018, p. 2570) argue that the recurrence of such events is the direct result of the state’s failure to address this issue. Gun control and safety is a contentious point in American society. The authors believe that the existing gun prevention efforts are ineffective as mass shootings continue.
This article is important because it addresses a burning problem in modern-day America – mass shootings in schools. It is also explored by Madfis (2017, p. 24) and Eleni, Artemis, and Giorgos (2017, p. 2), yet all researchers arrive at different conclusions. The authors of this article argue for the tightening of control measures and see insufficient safety as the reason why mass shootings transpire. The subsequent implication is that the more obstacles shooters encounter the less likely their criminal intention is to be successful.
Madfis, E. (2017) ‘In search of meaning: are school rampage shootings random and senseless violence?’, The Journal of Psychology, 151(1), pp. 21-35.
This article also concerns school shootings as a manifestation of violence, with special emphasis put on causes. Madfis (2017, p. 24) questions the common perception of school shootings as random acts of violence without any logical congruence. The author warns against this viewpoint since it promotes fear, paranoia, and helplessness. The most important idea of the article is that the belief in the randomness of school shootings prevents meaningful preventive actions.
This paper is important because it addresses the causes behind violent shootings in schools. Furthermore, the author attacks a common social stereotype of these events as random. The analysis by Eleni, Artemis, and Giorgos (2017, p. 2) also affirms the presence of this misconception. Each school shooting is carefully planned and nurtured over the course of years. Yet, contemporary policies are designed to form barriers to perpetrators instead of monitoring social issues that cause these individuals to shoot people.
Eleni, D., Artemis, I., & Giorgos, A. (2017) ‘School shootings: a review of the characteristics and the psychopathology of the perpetrators’, Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation, 2(4), pp. 1-6.
This paper analyzes the characteristics of school shooters and provides insight into the emotional and cultural origins of such massacres. Eleni, Artemis, and Giorgos (2017, p. 2) reveal that most of the perpetrators have notable similarities. For instance, they expressed their violent ideations in way or another over the years before the shootings themselves. Furthermore, the authors specifically reference statistics, which exclude mental health issues as the causative factor. The most important conclusion is that school shootings are a reaction to a certain problem but are not the cause of it.
This review is important because it offers a different outlook on the causative factors of school shootings. The overall public opinion espoused by some researchers, such as Katsiyannis, Whitford, and Ennis (2018, p. 2570), tends to frame school shooters as non-political terrorists and advocates for stricter gun control and safety measures. Although these policies do make the task of committing a massacre more difficult, they do not address the deeper issue.
Möller-Leimkühler, A.M. (2018) ‘Why is terrorism a man’s business?’, CNS Spectrums, 23(2), pp. 119-128.
This paper explores the question of why most terrorist attacks are performed by men. Möller-Leimkühler (2018, p. 125) analyzes various explanations of reasons behind terrorism and concludes that neither is sufficient to describe the entire complexity of this phenomenon. Yet, the research referenced by her does suggest that one of the underlying factors propelling men to engage in extremist ideologies is threatened masculinity. The advancement of women’s rights and the growing role of women in society challenge the fundamental views of extremists who stand for the traditional patriarchal structures.
The significance of this article is determined by the fact that terrorism is predominantly male. Möller-Leimkühler’s argument that emotional insecurities are a determinant of violence is similar to the conclusion by Scheff, Daniel, and Sterphone (2018, p.109), who also argue that the failure to properly address negative emotions causes overreaction. The subsequent implication is that preventing violence is possible through improving emotional awareness.
Casaca, P. (2017) ‘The conceptual discussion on terrorism’, Terrorism Revisited, pp. 3-32.
This paper addresses another manifestation of violence prevalent in modern society – terrorism. Casaca (2017, p. 30.) posits the idea that the success of terrorism does not hinge on the number of people killed or the damage inflicted but rather on the impression of fear it creates. Terrorists seek to produce a horrifying effect on the psychology of the population. The subsequent implication is that the more aggressively the affected government reacts, the more successful terrorists are.
This article is important to the topic because it concerns the way society reacts to the expression of violence in the form of terrorism. The author draws attention to the emotional side of violent events. The role of feelings in the interpretation of violent events is also accentuated by Kar’s (2019, p. 8) study. It also emphasizes the importance of educating society on emotional regulation, which will prevent overreactions and inappropriate association of blame.
Kar, N. (2019) ‘Depression in youth exposed to disasters, terrorism and political violence’, Current Psychiatry Reports, 21(8), pp. 1-11.
This study explores the effect exposure to violence has on young people. Kar (2019, p. 8) argues that the increasing frequency of disturbing events, such as terrorist attacks, natural disasters caused by climate change, and political violence, negatively impacts the youth’s psyche. More young people are likely to exhibit signs of depression today than in the past. The author argues that this trend should be acknowledged and properly addressed.
This paper is relevant because it focuses on the social implications of violence and mental health, specifically. Modern people are extremely vulnerable to biases and prejudices, which is also acknowledged by Kaufhold and Reuter (2019, p. 375). However, if the aforementioned researchers argued for promoting emotional awareness as a measure preventing violence, Kar emphasizes the need to help people who cannot overcome depression on their won. The implication is that governments should start implementing measures to improve overall mental health and help people recuperate from shock and trauma caused by violence.
Kleinot, P. (2017) ‘One man’s freedom fighter is another man’s terrorist: a selected overview of the psychoanalytic and group analytic study of terrorism’, Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, 31(3), pp. 272-284.
This paper focuses on the dual nature of violence and terrorism specifically. Kleinot (2017, p. 280) argues that the incidence of terrorist attacks has increased significantly since the start of the War on Terror. Despite the growing awareness of the necessity of counter-terrorism measures, the threat remains and appears to grow bigger. Kleinot criticizes stereotypical thinking regarding Muslims as the determinant of extremist influence. The more Muslims are exposed to Islamophobia the more incentivized they are to see the West as the enemy and favor extremism.
This paper is important because it addresses a common social misconception that leads to violence. Framing Islam as a violent religion that causes people to conduct terrorist attacks fuels the hate ideology of Fundamental Islamists. Kleinot’s protection of Muslims is similar to how Eleni, Artemis, and Giorgos (2017, p. 2) argue against the removal of guns as an effective measure in preventing violence. Blaming people who follow Islam is an oversimplification, which should be addressed by Western governments and education systems.
Rozel, J.S. and Mulvey, E.P. (2017) ‘The link between mental illness and firearm violence: implications for social policy and clinical practice’, Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, pp. 445-469.
This paper focuses on the efficiency of the current interventions for firearm violence prevention. Rozel and Mulvey (2017, p. 446) criticize the current tendency to blame firearm crimes in the United States on mental health issues, which are statistically insignificant in causing gun violence. Instead of advocating for the removal of guns altogether, the authors point to the lack of health and safety measures as the reason behind gun violence.
This paper is important because it addresses a common social misconception regarding violence prevention. Eleni, Artemis, and Giorgos (2017, p. 2) also warn of the danger of equating of mental illnesses with criminal intentions. The use of mental health issues as an explanation for violence oversimplifies and further obfuscates social perception of violence. Furthermore, it incorrectly stigmatizes people with mental illnesses as potential criminals. The subsequent implication is that the government should shift the focus from psychiatry to psychology in explaining the actions of mass shooters.
Kaufhold, M.A. and Reuter, C. (2019) ‘Cultural violence and peace in social media’, Information Technology for Peace and Security, pp. 361-381.
This paper explores the virtual dimension of violence in contemporary society. Kaufhold and Reuter (2019, p. 375) argue that social media provide a venue for the proliferation of toxic messages. Social networks encompass large percentage of world population, yet they also exposed to cultural violence. Malicious content is created by both real people and bots, which add further complexity to the field of virtual communication. Despite existing in the virtual dimension, toxic messages impact the real behavior of people.
This paper is important because it accentuates how damaging virtual violence can be despite being non-physical. The article also explains how ideas of Islamophobia, pointed out by Kleinot (2017, p. 280) and the role of mental illnesses in gun violence pointed out by Rozel and Mulvey (2017, p. 446) are spread. Constant exposure to viral messages on the Internet actively influences users’ worldviews. The subsequent implication is that it is important to pay attention to communication in social networks since they mirror the current social outlook.
Peterson, J. and Densley, J. (2017) ‘Cyber violence: what do we know and where do we go from here?’, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, pp. 193-200.
This study focuses on the phenomenon of cyber violence and its possible future permutations. Peterson and Densley (2017, p. 198) argue that the most common manifestation of violence today is online aggression. It is employed by terrorists, political extremists, and activists alike. The availability of social networks allows them to reach large audiences while unhinged by geographical barriers. Although social media enables the existence of cyber crimes, the networks themselves are not responsible for it as people are.
This paper is important because it addresses a common criticism of social media as source of violence. Yet, it is the behavior of users who spread toxic messages that allows online aggression in the first place. As much as virtual communication precipitates violence, it is also able to produce a soothing and empathizing effect on users. The subsequent implication is that people should learn to control emotions while communicating on social networks. After all, virtual communication will only increase and continue to have an important effect on users’ behavior.
Overall, three major themes can be identified among the reviewed sources, the first of which is that modern society simplifies violence. It is evident in how the public blames Islam for terrorism (Kleinot, 2017, p. 280). Social criticism of mental illnesses as the causes of mass shootings is also a sign of oversimplification (Rozel and Mulvey, 2017, p. 446; Katsiyannis, Whitford and Ennis, 2018, p. 2562). Finally, viewing social media as a source of violence is also a simplistic overview of virtual communication (Peterson and Densley, 2017, p. 198; Kaufhold and Reuter, 2019, p. 375). These misconceptions lead to disproportionate associations of blame and the failure to understand the real origins of violence.
The second theme is that public ignorance and silence directly contribute to the perpetuation of violence. Society is generally oblivious to sexual violence (Armstrong, Gleckman-Krut and Johnson, 2018, p. 99), mass incarcerations are perceived as a norm (Stone-Mediatore, 2019, p. 542), and social determinants of mass shootings are largely unknown by the public (Eleni, Artemis, and Giorgos, 2017, p. 5; Madfis, 2017, p. 25). In all cases, the lack of awareness allows violence to exist.
The final theme is that the inability to handle emotions causes violence. Terrorists scare people into helplessness (Casaca, 2017, p. 4), political leaders cannot overcome shame (Scheff, Daniel and Sterphone, 2018, p. 110), while men fear the loss of power (Möller-Leimkühler, 2018, p. 124). The most important implication is that society has to accept violence as a social fact (Hartmann, 2017, p. 5) and a necessary precursor for order (Menge, 2022, p. 761) and learn not to overreact to violent events (Kar, 2019, p. 9). If society is not able to discern between emotions and rationality, violence will continue to have such a devastating impact on physical and mental health.
Reference List
Armstrong, E.A., Gleckman-Krut, M. and Johnson, L. (2018) ‘Silence, power, and inequality: an intersectional approach to sexual violence’, Annual Review of Sociology, 44(1), pp. 99-122.
Casaca, P. (2017) ‘The conceptual discussion on terrorism’, Terrorism Revisited, pp. 3-32.
Eleni, D., Artemis, I., & Giorgos, A. (2017) ‘School shootings: a review of the characteristics and the psychopathology of the perpetrators’, Journal of Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation, 2(4), pp. 1-6.
Hartmann, E. (2017) ‘Violence: constructing an emerging field of sociology’, International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 11, pp. 1-9.
Kar, N. (2019) ‘Depression in youth exposed to disasters, terrorism and political violence’, Current Psychiatry Reports, 21(8), pp. 1-11.
Katsiyannis, A., Whitford, D.K. and Ennis, R.P. (2018) ‘Historical examination of United States intentional mass school shootings in the 20th and 21st centuries: implications for students, schools, and society’, Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(8), pp. 2562-2573.
Kaufhold, M.A. and Reuter, C. (2019) ‘Cultural violence and peace in social media’, Information Technology for Peace and Security, pp. 361-381.
Kleinot, P. (2017) ‘One man’s freedom fighter is another man’s terrorist: a selected overview of the psychoanalytic and group analytic study of terrorism’, Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, 31(3), pp. 272-284.
Madfis, E. (2017) ‘In search of meaning: are school rampage shootings random and senseless violence?’, The Journal of Psychology, 151(1), pp. 21-35.
Menge, T. (2022) ‘Violence and the materiality of power’, Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 25(6), pp. 761-786.
Möller-Leimkühler, A.M. (2018) ‘Why is terrorism a man’s business?’, CNS Spectrums, 23(2), pp. 119-128.
Peterson, J. and Densley, J. (2017) ‘Cyber violence: what do we know and where do we go from here?’, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, pp. 193-200.
Rozel, J.S. and Mulvey, E.P. (2017) ‘The link between mental illness and firearm violence: implications for social policy and clinical practice’, Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, pp. 445-469.
Scheff, T., Daniel, G.R. and Sterphone, J. (2018) ‘Shame and a theory of war and violence’, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 39, pp. 109-115.
Stone-Mediatore, S. (2019) ‘How America disguises its violence: colonialism, mass incarceration, and the need for resistant imagination’. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 22(5), pp. 542-561.