Introduction
Some individuals engage in crime at a very young age. Some of these individuals engage in crime due to a lack of direction while some are natural criminals. Governments have created juvenile systems to serve as correctional facilities for these young offenders. Analyses show that some of these offenders continue to commit crimes in adulthood. Self-control is one of the key factors contributing to criminality. People who lack self-control mostly engage in crime.
Analysts normally use the recidivism approach to identify factors behind sexual crimes. Recidivism is the act of an individual engaging in undesired activities and behavior after facing undesirable consequences of engaging in unacceptable behavior. Specialists use this approach, especially when referring to sex offenders. Recidivism results from uninhibited gratifications and a lack of self-control among others. Recidivism occurs if treatment or rehabilitation programs fail to emphasize self-control and restraint.
Self-control is the ability of an individual to regulate his/her desires. Self-control theory is a criminology theory that analyzes the lack of self-control and its influence on crime rates. Hirschi and Gottfredson developed this theory in the early 90s. This theory is an advancement of Freud’s reality and pleasure-seeking principle. Hirschi and Gottfredson termed self-control as the main factor behind the crime. They drew their conclusion based on the strong relationship between criminal behavior and age factor. It is important to understand the issue of self-control to know how to deal with crime. Many scholars have analyzed and documented books on criminology.
This paper considers the work of several authors who have related crime to self-control. It critically analyzes the ideas presented by various authors in their articles. Further, this paper compares and contrasts the ideas presented by the selected authors.
Literature Review
One article that this paper review is the Recidivism among male juvenile sexual offenders in Western Australia article by Allan and their articles. This article focuses on recidivism in juveniles. It assesses the effects of rehabilitation on recidivism. This study established that juvenile offenders commit criminal offenses in adulthood. The writers established that one out of ten offenders commits new sexual offenses. The authors also conducted a study on 16 youths and found out that those youth who underwent multisystemic therapy with traditional generic non-specialized therapy had lower rates of repeating sexual offenses than those who had received individual therapy.
They found that youths receiving multisystemic therapy had a reoffending rate of 12% while those receiving individual therapy had a reoffending rate of 75% (Allan et al., 2003). In their findings, these authors proved that therapy and rehabilitation programs were essential in reducing recidivism. According to them, juveniles who undergo self-control advocating programs have positive responses to rehabilitative efforts (Allan et al., 2003).
Allan’s article is similar to an article by McKay and his colleagues. The articles are similar in the approach they take on the probability of a juvenile repeating an offense. McKay and his colleagues, in their article, focused on juvenile sex offenders and recidivism. These authors used a longitudinal study to show how one can identify variables and indicators related to juveniles who have a high chance of reoffending.
Their study, which took three years to complete, revolved around juvenile sex offenders, their crimes, and factors surrounding the repeatability of these crimes. The primary question of the study aimed at determining whether juveniles commit crimes because of psychosexual disorders or because of social defiance. This study, which concentrated on 3,000 subjects, established that every nine out of ten of these juveniles repeat non-sexual offenses in adulthood. The researchers also established that every one out of ten juveniles commits sexual crimes when they grow up. According to this article, those youths who undergo therapy have a lower rate of recidivism than those who do not undergo therapy.
The authors related this to the intensive therapy and treatment provided to the juveniles (McKay, Nisbet, Wilson, and Smallbone, 2004). This article discusses the importance of empowering governmental social service agencies, which offer a variety of treatments based on rehabilitating individuals. This article considers the influence of the self-control theory when dealing with juvenile sex offenders. There is a striking similarity between this article and Allan’s article.
Another article reviewed that concurs with Allan’s article is the transfer of juveniles to criminal court: re-examining recidivism over the long-term article by Bishop, Lanza-Kaduce, Frazier, and Winner. These contributors analyzed the abundance of juvenile studies and juvenile criminal records. They drew solid conclusions and suggested important reform strategies to the juvenile justice systems. The contributors, in their study, used a sample size that consisted of offenders from diverse backgrounds who had committed sexual offenses to ensure the credibility of their analysis. The authors were consistent with the Self-Control Theory.
They argued that the response of the offender’s behavior e.g. during the transfer of juveniles to criminal court, was measured and a proportional punishment is given (Bishop et al., 1997). This article focuses on female juvenile offenders. Its major finding is that behaviors such as defiance, rudeness, and cunningness portrayed by the juveniles during the incarceration period reflect their real behaviors. The study implies that those individuals who cannot contain their emotions or have low self-control have a higher rate of receding as compared to those who can contain their emotions.
This study demystifies Allan’s theory that age influences recidivism. It concludes that the factors that influence the repeatability of an offense are the same for a juvenile and an adult. This article attributes recidivism to social factors. According to them, factors such as unemployment, psychiatric disorders, and prior violent offenses contribute to the repetition of an offense. Some similarities established between female juvenile offenders include poverty, under-education, non-violence, and mental health. Just like Allan’s article, this article connects recidivism to the self-control theory.
Bonta, Pang, and Wallace-Capretta boast of numerous contributions to academic journals. These scholars have extensive backgrounds on prison populations and sociological gender issues. Their article relates to the issue raised by Bishop and his colleagues. The study of these scholars produced reliable and accurate data, which was gender-specific and focused on the matter of recidivism among juveniles. The authors based their research on a question that sort to establish the factors that motivate female offenders not to repeat their offense after the incarceration period. The research concentrated on 500 female offenders of diverse backgrounds.
This study established that most female offenders do not repeat their offenses after the incarceration period. They established that the rate of female offenders was twice as low as that of male offenders. They linked these low rates to the fact that women are shy, less strong, and hence difficult for them to engage in these crimes as adults. This study concluded that there was a big difference between rates of male and female subsequent offenders (Bonta, Pang, and Wallace-Capretta, 1995). However, they said that the reasons for repeating the offense were the same for both genders. This article is similar to Allan’s article in that it shows a clear connection between the Self-Control theory and recidivism among juveniles.
Another article that corresponds with Allan’s article is Matshazi’s article. Matshazi and Quist provide definitive research on issues concerning juvenile recidivism. Although the writers took a long to finalize the study, their findings contribute greatly to the topic. The base study of this study dealt with the effectiveness of the Child and Adolescence Functional Assessment Scale (CAFAS). The two targeted mental health professions and stakeholders of the criminal justice field. This study centers on the effectiveness of the assessment instruments involved in predicting recidivism. CAFAS, the instrument used, treated recidivism as stable and dynamic.
This instrument assesses recidivism using variables such as ethnicity, sex, and age. Matshazi and Quist established that there is a need for collaboration between multiple government agencies to ensure that the assessment tools are effective. They also established the importance of allocating adequate resources when dealing with juveniles. In addition, another finding proposed that the probation rules should entail mental health treatment to reduce the risk of reoffending (Matshazi and Quist, 2000). They suggested that mental health treatment allows individuals to improve their self-control.
Therefore, mental treatment is important as it helps juvenile offenders refrain from committing subsequent crimes. On top of being similar to Allan and Green’s article in terms of using assessment instruments, it is similar to Furlong’s articles in that they both cite other researches related to the Self-Control theory.
Furlong’s article is very similar to Matshazi’s article. Furlong and his colleagues complement each other. Furlong, Jimerson, Brien, and Sharkey had the responsibility of gathering and analyzing data regarding assessment instruments completed by juveniles and adults.
Their research question was to determine which existing assessment at the time was best at predicting juvenile recidivism. They compared various existing assessment tools to find out how effective they were in establishing the recidivism rates among juveniles. Major findings were that the “Santa Barbara Assessment” project would provide a better reflection on risks and indicators of predicting recidivism regardless of the offense history. They established that no assessment tools accommodated all the dimensions that contribute to recidivism among juveniles.
Further, they established that the implementers did not utilize the assessment tools fully. As a result, the juveniles’ problems were not fully assessed. The authors concluded that the criminal justice systems need more comprehensive assessments, to be developed and utilized for better prediction of juvenile recidivism. The writers concluded stakeholders should improve psychological assessments to treat adult and juvenile offenders appropriately (Furlong, Jimerson, O’Brien, and Sharkey, 2003).
Furlong, Jimmerson, Sharkey, and Brien conducted separate research to supplement their previous one. These two articles concentrated on issues of juvenile and adult offenders. The research question centered on the effectiveness of the assessment tools used as raters. This article focuses on the reliability of the rater education, proficiency, and training. They focused on the most effective assessment tool at the time, which was the “Santa Barbara Assessment”. The main findings of this study were that service providers who have great skill and accountability must implement the “Santa Barbara Assessment” for effectiveness.
The study emphasized the importance of proper juvenile funding, hiring of committed and having skilled professionals (Furlong, Jimerson, O’Brien, and Sharkey, 2004). They concluded that juveniles have a lower rate of reoffending if skilled professionals handle them. This is because the professionals can cope with a wide scope of problems affecting juvenile offenders. This article is similar to the article by Green and Colleagues.
Green, Omobien, and Shepherd are professors and members of the courtroom workgroup in Ohio who have adequate experience. The trio collaborated to document an article, which they presented at a conference of the American Psychological Association. Just like the articles above, this article focuses on assessment tools that help in predicting recidivism. The writers in their study included analyses of data relative to risk assessment and levels of functioning instruments. These levels of functions assess the roles and domains of juvenile functions after they commit offenses. The study’s subjects were a group of 83 homogenous juveniles who were serving long terms in juveniles in Ohio.
Some of the juveniles were under psychotropic medication. The study conducted established that the current knowledge on recidivism is shallow. They advocated for the improvement and advancement of juvenile studies to serve juveniles better. The study established that variables of recidivism depend on reporting and response of juveniles. The authors discovered that if a juvenile has self-control he/she recuperates fast as compared to one without. This article concludes that more studies regarding recidivism are necessary (Green, Omobien, and Shepherd, 2005). This article is similar to Carr and Vandiver’s article concerning the self-control theory.
Carr and Vandiver are well-known professors and researchers in the areas of sociology and psychology. The two conducted a study and found out that recidivism is likely to occur if rehabilitation does not stress self-control. In their research, these researchers established that the probability of juveniles reoffending and receiving graduated punishments is high if the offenders do not undergo rehabilitation. These findings point out that effective psychological assessment instruments and constant studies of juveniles are important in the handling of juveniles who are resistant to treatment. According to them, juvenile studies are simple if the researchers use the necessary tools and assessment methods Carr and Vandiver, 2001).
Grunseit’s article focuses on violent occurrences and the success of juveniles in particular school environments. The study focused on high-school-aged juveniles. The findings of this Study show the consequences of committing crimes and the factors that promote continuity of the Offenses. This article relates the rates of recidivism to the social interactions of juvenile offenders. For instance, if juveniles are received well by their peers they have lower chances of receding. On the other hand, those who are faced with rejection and mockery become more hostile and have high chances of receding and committing the crimes again (Grunseit, Donnelly, and Weatherburn, 2008). The ideas expressed in this article match those expressed in Harley’s article.
Harley, a scholar in the field of sociology and psychology, wrote an article that he directed to policymakers and courtroom members regarding juveniles. Harley proposed that the most effective way of preventing juveniles from reoffending is by providing knowledge and skills to them. Harley’s article examines the role of providing vocational skills in reducing recidivism amongst juvenile offenders. He advocates for the need for special examination programs in juvenile rehabilitation.
This is because specialists diagnose most offenders with special needs. The primary question for Harley’s study aimed at determining the direct impacts of vocational training in reducing recidivism in juveniles. Harley found out that for a program to be successful it has to involve collaboration from all stakeholders (Harley, 1996). The ideas proposed by this article concur with the ideas of the articles that propose that effective strategies of juvenile programs reduce recidivism.
Another article that is similar to Harley’s article is Hatchett’s article. Hatchett‘s articles call for necessary reforms and improvements of the juvenile justice system across the nation (Hatchett, 1998). This article analyzes the reforms needed in the juvenile justice system. The major findings were that the systems need improvement to handle the juveniles appropriately. The study indicates that juveniles who are handled well have lower rates of receding. This article supports the self-control theory and supports the thesis of this paper.
However, the ideas expressed in Allan’s article and other articles discussed above differ greatly from those proposed by Byrd in his article. According to Byrd and his colleagues, there is a direct connection between self-concept and personal assessment surveys completed by offenders and self-control theory. This study surveys juvenile offenders using universal assessment measures. According to the writers, negative influences of peers bear great impacts on a juvenile’s self-concept.
They argue that juveniles strive to fit into society and may engage in unethical behaviors to impress their peers. The key finding of this research is that juveniles who commit offenses differ in self-concept opinions (Byrd, Connor, Sacks, and Thackrey, 1993). These researchers attribute recidivism to external factors and rule out self-control as the major cause of recidivism. However, they acknowledge that the self-concept and self-control ability of a juvenile contribute to recidivism.
According to the writers, juveniles who accept their imperfections are less likely to re-offend. Further, they are easier to rehabilitate. This article incorporates the concept of self-control theory about recidivism. It concludes that self-concept assessments are critical to modifying behavior through social science interventions in juvenile justice systems. Though the ideas of this article differ from the ideas in the articles above, it is similar to Putin’s article.
Putnins has an extensive background in sociological and psychological training. He emphasizes human development, especially the adolescent stage of development. This article shares a lot with Byrd’s article. This article largely accommodates the importance of society in shaping the behaviors of juveniles. Putnins connects the delinquency of teenagers to defiance and self-control theory. He gives an example of rituals such as tattooing to explain his point. He documents that adolescents want to use their body as a piece of art and display it like a billboard (Putnins, 2002). His research question tries to establish the likelihood of peer-influenced juveniles to re-offend. He establishes that society is the key contributor to juveniles committing subsequent offenses. Putnins uses sociological means to test the self-control theory.
Putnins in a separate article uses different measures to predict recidivism. In his second article, Putnins argues that the bond between individual variables and recidivism is weak (Putnins, 2005). This article aims at identifying the instruments, which work well in determining and predicting the rate of recidivism among juveniles and adults. Putin’s major finding is that the current juvenile studies of recidivism point out that those juvenile offenders who show a great risk of reoffending need comprehensive services. This study is comparable to other studies discussed that use different risk assessment instruments. Both articles by Putnins contribute to the comprehension of the self-control theory.
Braithwaite and Munford’s article pays attention to the aspect of family support in juvenile rehabilitation. These writers, who are juvenile justice system practitioners, concentrate on the role of the family in reducing recidivism in juvenile offenders. According to them, this aspect is important but most researchers tend to sideline it. Family is important in enhancing and accelerating the reintegration of a juvenile into society after incarceration.
These scholars suggest that societies should reward and recognize juveniles when they complete rehabilitation programs (Braithwaite and Mugford, 1994). Braithwaite and Munford document that recognition speeds up the reintegration of juveniles into society. Findings show that ceremonies are a good starting point for juvenile rehabilitation. In addition, they establish that the involvement of families especially parents is important in the reintegration of juveniles into society.
They also document that there is a chance that juvenile offenders will commit an offense again at some point in their lives. Braithwaite and Munford conclude that ceremonies publicly and positively acknowledge the efforts of juveniles. This article expresses ideas similar to those expressed in Putnins’ article. They both use sociological indicators to predict recidivism amongst juveniles.
Evaluation
All the articles are used to support the thesis statement of this paper. All the authors agree on the fact that self-control has an influence on the probability of an offender repeating an offense. All the authors acknowledge the fact that there are variables that contribute to the juveniles receding. Some of the factors mentioned by the authors include peer influence, social interaction, family, mental disorders, and health issues among others.
All the articles discussed concur that juveniles are in delicate situations and need programs to help in rehabilitating them. However, these programs have to be effective and able to accommodate the diverse needs of juvenile offenders. Therefore, all authors agree on the fact that it is important to conduct a more comprehensive and detailed study, which analyzes all the areas of juvenile rehabilitation.
Despite the strong similarities between the articles above, there are very clear distinctions between works of individual authors. For instance, these works vary in terms of ideologies, methodologies, conclusions, and suggestions. Some ideas attribute recidivism to self-control issues while others attribute it to family, society, rehabilitation programs, and health to recidivism. Assessment methods used by individual authors also vary greatly. These differences provide a wide scope for the comparison of views of different authors.
Conclusion
It is evident from the articles that this paper has reviewed that recidivism is a problem in the juvenile criminal justice system. Recidivism, which is the act of an individual to re-offend after facing undesired consequences for prior offenses, occurs due to many reasons. The studies conducted above established that recidivism occurs due to lack of self-control, peer influence, society reception among other reasons. The studies recommended that to reduce the rates of recidivism, stakeholders have to take certain measures. The researchers recommended that juveniles be taken through rehabilitation and therapy programs to reduce the rate of recidivism.
They also recommended that more studies be conducted on juveniles to have more information on juveniles and factors affecting their well-being. Overall, the studies conducted contribute greatly to the understanding and handling of recidivism among juveniles.
References
Allan, A., Allan, M., Kraszlan, K., and Marshall, P. (2003). Recidivism among male juvenile sexual offenders in Western Australia. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 10(2), 359.
Bishop, M., Frazier, E., Lanza-Kaduce, L., and Winner, L. (1997). The transfer of juveniles to criminal court: reexamining recidivism over the long term. Crime and Delinquency, 43(4), 548.
Bonta, J., Pang, B., and Wallace-Capretta, S. (1995). Predictors of recidivism among incarcerated female offenders. Prison Journal, 75(3), 277.
Braithwaite, J., and Mugford, S. (1994). Conditions of successful reintegration ceremonies: dealing with juvenile offenders. British Journal of Criminology, 34(2), 139-171.
Byrd, R., Connor, K., Sacks, M., and Thackrey, M. (1993). The utility of self-concept as a predictor of recidivism among juvenile offenders. The Journal of Psychology, 127(2), 195.
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Putnins, A. (2002). Young offenders, tattoos and recidivism. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 9(1), 62.
Putnins, A. (2005). Assessing recidivism risk among young offenders. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 38(3), 324.