Explain the fundamental differences between
Theory and Hypothesis
A theory is a statement on the possible reasons behind the phenomenon, the laws of nature governing the behavior. A hypothesis is a scientifically testable statement showing a relationship involving two or more variables that should be subjected to the research process. It may also be defined as a testable statement on relationships between different factors or variables.
Conceptualization and Operationalization
Conceptualization involves the process of understanding or defining the meaning of a term that is under investigation or study. It involves understanding what the general parameters mean then simplifying them and turning them into testable specific elements of a hypothesis. Operationalization on the other hand is the process that sets down exact definitions of variables by defining the procedure and steps to be applied in observing/measuring the concepts. Allowing for empirical and quantitative measurement which improves the quality of the results and creates grounds for accurate replication of the process for it defines the exact measuring method used
Validity and Reliability
When conducting research we strive to ensure that we measure what we set out to measure and see if the measurement process gives us similar or consistent results when repeated over time. When we are concerned about consistency and stability over time, we are to some extent making sure that the data is reliable. This can be ensured through, test-Retest, Inter-Item, and Interobserver validation methods. On the other hand, validity is used to mean the degree to which we are measuring what we set out to measure. This can be ensured through Face, Content, Criterion-Related, and Construct Validity testing. For an instrument to be valid, it must be reliable but vice versa is not true.
Deductive and Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning involves moving from the general to the specific whereas inductive reasoning involves moving from the specific to the general. In the Inductive or grounded reasoning model, specific observations are used to develop theories or general principles whereas, in deductive reasoning, general principles are used as the basis for developing specific principles or expectations of a phenomenon or hypothesis: like having a theory and setting out to prove or disprove it
Representative (probability) and non-representative (non-probability) sampling
In probability sampling, the elements in the population have an equal and non-zero chance of being included in the sample thus the sample is representative of the whole population hence generalization is possible. Probability sampling methods include stratified random, simple random, systematic random, cluster random, and mixed/multi-stage random sampling.
In non-probability sampling, the individuals in the population have non-equal chances of being selected into the sample. The sample is not representative of the whole population hence generalization is not possible. They include: convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, and snowball sampling
The purposes of a social research
The purposes of social research include Exploration. This is where initial contact which leads to familiarity with a phenomenon is provided. They may also be used for the description of situations and events. Explanatory research examines the causes and reasons of a certain phenomenon. Social researches may also be used to assess the success of a social program, and suggest the kind of intervention needed.
The most important criteria when trying to identify a social research topic
The most important criteria when trying to identify a social research topic is by first having a relevant problem. This helps to avoid duplication of the topic by studying the same topic in the same area. You can study it in a different area for comparison purposes. Flexibility and the resources available should be put into consideration. It should not be too broad or narrow. Ethical acceptability and cultural sensitivity should be considered and the question should serve to enhance intellectual satisfaction.
The primary objective of social research
The primary objective of social research is to generate measurable and testable data, which results in gradual addition to the knowledge. In the real world, the primary objective of social research is achieved through hypothesis testing, the use of empirical methods of data collection, and pilot studies to test the applicability of these theories. This is done through observation and description, Prediction, determination of the causes, explanation, and paving new directions.
The most common and important sources of errors in social research include measurement error which is considered the primary source of error. Other sources of errors are errors in the various biases, sampling, instrumentation, procedures, and data analysis. Some of these errors are Selective or partial observation, Inaccurate observation, Overgeneralization, Making-up information, post-survey hypothesizing, Illogical reasoning, Ego involvement in understanding, Premature closure of inquiry, and Mystification errors.
The process of carrying out social research
Carrying out social research is a step-by-step process. The first step involves understanding the various assumptions that may exist about the object to be researched. The next step will involve the identification of the problem that warrants research. This is followed by theoretical observation/research which is aimed at relating the identified problem to a theoretical framework to establish the extent to which social research will be carried out. The next step involves specifying the problem and the objectives and it is in this stage that research questions and research design are formulated. The research will also construct hypotheses as well as conceptual and operational definitions. This will be followed by sampling and then actual research will be conducted followed by analysis and interpretation. The next step will involve testing the hypothesis to establish the validity of the research and where possible make necessary adjustments or revisions. The last step will involve drawing theoretical and practical implications of the research whereby the researcher will review the results of the research process.
What are the fundamental principles of ethical research? What problems and contradictions in the international context frequently arise in an attempt to meet the demands for ethical research?
The basic ethical principles are those general judgments that act as the basis for the justification of researchers’ actions. These include the respect for persons, which deals with the capacity for autonomy and self-determination, beneficence which means that people’s decisions should be respected and they should be protected from harm, and justice which is the criteria on who should receive the benefits and burdens of research and bear its benefits. Problems and contradictions of ethical issues in the international arena include the problem of informed consent, information about the research procedures, risks, and anticipated benefits, alternative procedures that can be used. This becomes a problem when dealing with classified programs. The way the information is presented also creates a problem due to language barriers and illiteracy. Also, the process of assessment of risks may be faulted leading to wrong assumptions and conclusions.
Describe the characteristics of “scientific” approaches to research (e.g. positivism) and non-scientific approaches (postmodernism, constructivism etc). What are the fundamental differences?
A scientific approach to research is characterized by testable beliefs of specific predictions through research findings. For instance, in positivism, the philosophy is that the reality of theory applies across all observable variables and is measurable. In addition, the role of knowledge is to objectively describe the phenomena that we experience and that there are no biases in observations since the laws of human behavior are universal. In this case, the reality extends beyond the perceptions and beliefs of people, and the best way to understand it is through empirical observation. The non-scientific approaches have a different view from the scientific approach. For instance, in post-modernism, although there is a need to perceive things objectively, there exist limitations in form of biasness and complexity of observation. In other words, there is a perception that the observations are not always true as they may contain errors. In subjectivism, there is the belief that views on an object should be constructed based on the perception of it. In this case, there can never be perfect views since observations based on perception are subject to errors and biasness.
What is the difference between causation and correlation? According to the text and lecture, what are the primary criteria for establishing causation in social research?
Causation may be described as an influence in the occurrence of a certain event or other words, making a dependent variable behave in a certain way due to the influence of the independent variable. Correlation on the other hand is the degree of relatedness or association between two or more variables. Although this relationship may be due to cause and effect, there are cases where the relationship does not result primarily from one variable causing the other. Generally, causation leads to correlation but correlation does not necessarily imply there is causation. For instance, a high correlation between drunk driving and accidents has been proved to be a cause of because and effect whereby drunk driving causes accidents; however a high correlation between accidents and white cars does not mean that white cars are more likely to be involved in accidents. There are five criteria for establishing causation in social research. These five criteria include association, appropriate time order, nonspuriousness, mechanism, and specifying the context.