Introduction
Development is the process that is typical of a human being. Such feature as continuity may characterize it since development goes on during the whole lifespan. Thus, developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the development of a person at a certain stage of life and on psychological and other related changes that occur on a certain stage of development.
Stages of development
There are five generally recognized stages that build up a lifespan of a person: infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Every stage has peculiar features that characterize the process of development during a stage and determine transition to another stage, thus being of vital importance for every person. However, the choice of the stage that will be analyzed in the present work is determined by the idea of developmentalists who state. “The first 12 years are extremely important years that sets the stage for adolescence and adulthood” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2009, p. 4). Consequently, the study of the period of childhood that will be limited to the period between the third and the twelfth year of life promises nontrivial results.
Physical development
Physical development occupies an important position in the development of a child as it can be clearly observed at this stage. It is really so, adults are often amazed at the quickness of the growth of children. However, growth is a very uneven process that is determined by two types of factors suggested by Shaffer and Kipp (2009) who state “asynchronies in the maturation of different body systems are built into our species’ heredity” (p. 203). They define it as common maturational program shared by all human beings. Thus, heredity combined with such environmental factors as the food, possible diseases, and even emotional climate determine the character of variations of physical development of children.
The role of hereditary factors in physical development of children is shown by numerous studies. For instance, Keenan and Evans (2009) mentioned the studies of Wilson who proved that there was large and stable correlation of growth of identical twins in comparison with smaller correlation observed for fraternal twins (p. 93). This example shows that height is determined by a hereditary factor largely. Johnson and Nahmad-Williams (2009) also mention that the color of eyes is genetically predetermined along with genetic conditions that can hinder physical development, such as asthma (p. 87).
Environmental factros
However, the whole set of environmental factors also play important role in the development of a child. Such factor as poverty can influence child’s development negatively and create favorable conditions for the development of asthma in poor damp housing (Johnson & Nahmad-Williams, 2009, p. 87). Nutrition is the factor similar to poverty and interrelated with it. Good nutrition that ensures necessary supply of vitamins will foster growth and maintain adequate physical development of a child.
Still, healthy physical development is not just a product of good nutrition. Emotional deprivation of a child can result in psychological dwarfism and physical deviations, such as “short stature and immature skeletal age” (Keenan & Evans, 2009, p. 94). Since the period analyzed is rather long, the consequences of the influence of environmental factors can be observed during the whole life.
In childhood, the development of cognitive skills is also very important as it determines subsequent existence of a person in society. Cognitive development is the development of cognition and conceptual knowledge (Johnson & Nahmad-Williams, 2009, p. 108).
The same two types of factors influence the development of cognitive skills: hereditary and environmental factors. Godwami (2001) states that different development of cognitive skills is the result of combination of hereditary and environmental factors (p. 610). The author sets the example of children with relatively low IQ that are placed in favorable educational environment that focuses on the development of their cognitive skills. As the result, a substantial increase in the development of their cognitive skills is observed as measured by special cognitive tests. Thus, two children with similar genetic predispositions can show different development of cognitive skills due to their environment (Godwami, 2001, p. 610).
It so happens sometimes that interaction of environmental factors and hereditary factor can cause mental retardation of a child. Still, if we have no opportunity to prevent the inheritance of such diseases, we should try to exclude environmental factors that provoke development of mental retardation. In order not to make unsubstantiated statements, let us set the example of phenylketonuria (RKU), a very rare hereditary disease that has mental retardation as the result unless environmental intervention is imposed (Goswami, 2001, p. 616). Thus, interaction of environmental and hereditary factors determines cognitive development of a child.
Theory by Erik Erickson
Passing on to the factors that influence social, moral, and personality development during childhood years, it is necessary to resort to theoretical perspectives associated with these types of development. Considering personality development, it is necessary to resort to a famous theory of personality by Erik Erickson. This theory is interesting for us as the period of childhood that is analyzed in this paper partially covers three stages of personality development introduced by Erickson. The third year of life belongs to the second stage of the theory. It is marked by the conflict that should be resolved to pass to the next stage successfully; it is the conflict of autonomy versus doubt (Weiten et al., 2008, p. 341). Significant social relationship of this stage is the relationship with parents.
Thus, they are the main factors that determine development of self-control and adequacy of their child that is favorable outcome o this stage (Weiten et al., 2008, p. 341). The next stage of personality development covers fourth through sixth years of life and family also plays major part during this stage, but family is a larger concept, it does not include parents only. The fourth stage of Erickson’s theory also covers final part of childhood up to twelve years. Here, significant social relationship includes neighborhood and school, which contribute to the creation of a child’s competence in social and other skills (Weiten et al., 2008, p. 341). Thus, social relationship is the decisive factor of the development of a child’s personality according to Erickson.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
As an example of application of a theory of moral development, we may resort to Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Children can be characterized by pre-conventional thought (Sugarman, 2001, p. 87). For this first level of theory, external criteria, such as punishment, are significant. Thus, a child acts in a way not to be punished. At the second stage of the same level, a child’s activity is aimed at personal rewards and avoidance of punishment (Sugarman, 2001, p. 87). Thus, children based on its consequences for them judge morality of an action. Moral reasoning becomes socially oriented on subsequent levels of a person’s development.
Conclusion
In a conclusion, it is possible to state that human development is a continuous process and the period of childhood occupies significant place in it and influences subsequent stages of human development. Numerous factors determine the way a person develops during childhood, environmental and hereditary factors work in complex and rule physical and cognitive development of a child. The explanation of other types of development, mainly social and moral, can be found in the theories of Erickson and Kohlberg who pay attention to childhood as an important period of human development.
Reference List
Goswami, U. (2002). Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Johnson, J., & Nahmad-Williams L. (2009). Early Childhood Studies. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Keenan, T., & Evans S. (2009). An Introduction to Child Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Shaffer, D.R., & Kipp K. (2009). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
Sugarman, L. (2001). Life-span Development: Frameworks, Accounts, and Strategies. New York: Psychology Press.
Weiten, W., Lloyd, M.A., Dunn, D.S., and Hammer E. (2008). Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century. NY: Cengage Learning.