Introduction
In the modern world, the role of the English language is considered vital and the teaching of the language has similar significance. This language is extensively used in every field of life today, trade and commerce, travel and tourism, banking, administration, aviation, law, and education, to name a few. “And now, with the advent of globalization and a revolution in information technology, the importance of this language has further increased.” (Sethi & Jindal Sethi, p 3). The teaching of the English language to the users of another language, thereby, gets pertinent prominence in this context. TESOL can be seen as a key way of teaching English to speakers of another language. There are several theories that deal with the various ways and methods of teaching English to speakers of other languages. Similarly, it is important to note that the teaching of the language involves the teaching of all the four skills of language, i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Listening comprehension, one of the primary skills to be acquired in TESOL, has a pertinent role in the acquisition of the English language by the speakers of other languages. “The field of TESOL is informed by theory, research and practice. TESOL is primarily practical activity but practice on its own can only be understood and improved when it is systematically examined and explored.
Main body
Hence, research is seen as a testing ground for the beliefs and assumptions on which practice is based and also as a source for new practices. There should be a dichotomy between theory and practice. While there is both applicable as well as inapplicable theory and research basis of TESOL is the focus on theoretical foundations of TESOL practices as well as the significance of theory for successful practice.” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p 215). English language learning has been of central value in the modern context and “Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages” (TESOL) has great relevance in the modern world. “TESOL is an acronym which stands for Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages and is a ‘blanket’ term covering situations in which English is taught as an L2, as well as those in which it is taught as a foreign language.” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p. 1). The teaching of English to the speakers of other languages has great relevance in the modern world and it suggests the significance of attaining good skills of teaching the language. “In fact, the field of teaching English as a second or foreign language has grown enormously in the past two decades.” (Opportunities in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, 1995, p 3).
There are four basic language skills, the acquirement of which is essential in the learning of English or any language for that matter. “For a long time, listening has been treated as the Cinderella of the four macro-skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing. However, as an essential part of communicative competence, listening is a skill that deserves equal treatment with the others…” (Flowerdew & Miller, 2005, p 134). Listening skill is the primary and most essential language skill to be acquired and the mastery in this skill may indicate proficiency in the language of English. “The term listening is used in language teaching to refer to a complex process that allows us to understand spoken language. Listening, the most widely used language skill, is often used in conjunction with the other skills of speaking, reading and writing. Listening is not only a skill area in language performance, but is also a critical means of acquiring a second language (L2).” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p 7). Along with the skill of speaking, the listening skill is regarded as the important pillar of the language which is learned primary by a speaker, and the other two language skills are acquired only at a later stage of language acquisition. “Listening and speaking play central roles in language acquisition and development… Listening is the ability to understand speech… Listening comprehension is central to language acquisition. In the last two decades it has become increasingly common to emphasize listening in the early stages of second language acquisition. Listening is an active and conscious process.” (Carrasquillo, 1994, p 131).
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) involves several language theories and listening comprehension has been a central concern of many of these theories. It is essential to be aware of the fact that these language theories suggest the method and techniques of listening comprehension. The external and internal aspects of the learner, as these theories point out, are considered vital in the development of listening comprehension in the process of language acquisition. “Listening comprehension has become the foundation of a number of theories of second language acquisition that focus on the beginning levels of second language proficiency. The primary assumption underlying those theories is that language acquisition is an implicit process in which linguistic rules are internalized by extensive exposure to authentic texts and particularly to comprehensible input that provides an appropriate level of challenge to the listener… In parallel with but independent of the emphasis on comprehension-based approaches to second language instruction, there has been an equal degree of theoretical interest in the mental process involved in listening.” (O’Malley & Uhl, 1990, p 129-30).
The several theories of learning very well suggest that learning of the language can be assisted and directed clearly so that the effect of TESOL is greater. The social cognitive theory, for example, proposes that behavior, environmental factors, personal elements, etc can be instrumental in better learning. It is the interrelation between all these factors that help the learners acquire learning items faster and more effectively. This also corresponds to the learning of language, especially the listening skills. “Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes learning in terms of the interrelationship between behavior, environmental factors, and personal factors. It also provides the theoretical framework for interactive learning used to develop both Constructivism and Cooperative Learning.” (Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), 2008). It is clear that according to this theoretical perspective, every learner achieves knowledge when the situation congregates with personal characteristics and personal experience. In this theory, the latest experiences are assessed against those of the past and it is clear that prior experiences are crucial in subsequently directing and informing the learner regarding how the present should be investigated. Thus, on the basis of this theory, the learning environment in language learning, as well as past learning, can be critical in the acquisition of the language. The instructor, therefore, should provide every opportunity to develop these conditions for the learning of listening skills. Therefore, it is clear the constructivist theory backs up the learning process of TESOL. In the same way, other theories such as comprehensible input, bottom-up and top-down listening schemata, behaviorism, and constructivist orientation theory may be seen as contributing to the learning activity of TESOL.
The skill of listening several other sub-skills and only a comprehension of the various listening aspects can lead one to be a good listener. The process of listening comprehension is of vital importance as well. It is important to comprehend that “effective listening involves a large number of component skills. Effective listeners actively engage in the process of comprehension: they apply relevant internal information available to them in order to construct their own interpretation of what has been said. They do not passively receive and record.” (Anderson & Lynch, 1988, p. 6). Listening comprehension can be very well comprehended as a central process in the language acquisition process and it is an active process in which several central aspects of language activity are involved. “Listening comprehension is viewed theoretically as an active process in which individuals focus on selected aspects of aural input, construct meaning from passages, and relate what they hear to existing knowledge.” (O’Malley, Uhl & Küpper). Some of the direct research evidence has sufficiently proved and supported this theoretical view and this is essential to view that the listening activity is an integral part of the language process. “Listening has rightly assumed a central role in language learning. The skills underlying listening have become more clearly defined. Strategies contributing to effective listening are now better understood. Teaching methodology in the mainstream has not yet caught up with theory… Specific skill instruction as well as strategy development still needs greater attention in order to demystify the listening process.” (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p 13).
It is essential to consider that the teaching of the language to the speakers of other languages involves several challenges. The teaching of the English language to speakers of other languages involves various pertinent questions and these are very significant to be dealt with in the process of teaching the language. It is significant also to consider the several methods and theoretical perspectives of language teaching. “Methods serve as a foil for reflection that can aid teachers in bringing to conscious awareness the thinking that underlies their actions.” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p ix). In an evaluation of the various theories that are significant in language teaching to the speakers of another language, the role of listening taxonomy is of primary consideration. Listening taxonomy can be regarded as an essential element in the learning of English as a foreign language. The listening taxonomies indicate various elements of learning the language. “Foreign language educators also have developed taxonomies of listening comprehension as a foundation for enabling students to process the acquisition of the new language.” (Wolvin & Coakley, 1993, p 17).
It is of significant consideration that language learning depends greatly on listening as it provides the aural input that serves as the basis for language acquisition and enables learners to interact in spoken communication. It is also pertinent to remember that among the four language modes the children acquire the listening mode first. Remarkably, listening plays a life-long role in the process of communication as it offers the basis for all facets of language and cognitive development. Language input, according to second language acquisition theory, is the most critical condition of language achievement. Listening has a crucial role to play in the language development of the students, as it is an input skill. Therefore, language is acquired mainly through receiving understandable input. Significantly, the listening ability is the essential element in the achievement of understandable language input. It is fundamental for language teachers to help students in becoming effective listeners as there is great importance for listening in language learning and teaching. “In the communicative approach to language teaching, this means modeling listening strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: precisely those that learners are likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.” (Guo & Wills).
In the attempt to comprehend the various theories that contribute to the listening aspect of the language learning schema theory has a great significance. It is a theory that details how the stored information in the memory of the people is found useful in the attainment of the essentially human aspects. There have been several pieces of evidence for the role of the schema theory in the understanding of listening comprehension. The richness of a schema affects listening in a significant manner and it is crucial in the process of adding new listening aspects to the existing schema. Schema is also useful in listening during conversations. “Schema theory is important for listening theory and research for several reasons. First, selection, interpretation, and retrieval of information are components of listening… Second, a database involving orally administered tasks already exists in schema theory research.” (Wolvin & Coakley, 1993, p 61).
In this analysis of the TESOL theories and listening comprehension, it is also important to consider the significance of listening strategies. “Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified by how the listener processes the input. Top-down strategies are listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come next… Listening comprehension tends to be an interactive, interpretive process in which listeners use prior knowledge and linguistic knowledge in understanding messages. Listeners use meta-cognitive, cognitive and socio-affective strategies to facilitate comprehension and to make their learning more effective.” (Guo & Wills).
As we understand more about language quality as well as the development of teaching theory, there has been a great identification of the process of listening comprehension which requires better emphasis. It is imperative to understand that listening is an invisible mental process and therefore it is complex to be described. However, it is most often realized, as Wipf in his “Strategies for Teaching Second Language Listening Comprehension” points out, that the listeners must discriminate between sounds, understand vocabulary and grammatical structures, interpret stress and intonation, understand the intention and retain and interpret this within the immediate as well as the larger socio-cultural context of the utterance. (Wipf, 1984, 17:345-48). It is pertinent to consider the definition of listening given by Rost who in a broad sense defines it as a process of receiving what the speaker actually says (receptive orientation); constructing and representing meaning (constructive orientation); negotiating meaning with the speaker and responding (collaborative orientation); and, creating meaning through involvement, imagination, and empathy (transformative orientation). (Rost, 2002). From such a discussion of the listening comprehension by important writers, it becomes clear that it is essential to comprehend listening as a complex activity that needs further investigation. “Listening, then, is a complex, active processes of interpretation in which listeners match what they hear with what they already know.” (Guo & Wills P. 4).
The theoretical analysis of listening comprehension can be essential in an understanding of the various aspects of listening processes. Significantly, there are two distinct processes involved in listening comprehension. In the first process of listening, which is known as ‘top-down’ processes, listeners use previous knowledge to comprehend the meaning of a message. The knowledge of the topic, the listening context, the text type, the culture, or other information stored in long-term memory as schemata, etc can be part of the prior knowledge. Content words and contextual clues are made use by the listeners in order to form premises in an investigative way. The second process, known as ‘bottom-up’ processes, is, on the other hand, used by listeners as they use linguistic knowledge to understand the meaning of a message. In such a process meaning is arrived at from lower-level sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meanings. “Listening comprehension is not either top-down or bottom-up processing, but an interactive, interpretive process where listeners use both prior knowledge and linguistic knowledge in understanding messages. The degree to which listeners use the one process or the other will depend on their knowledge of the language, familiarity with the topic or the purpose for listening. For example, listening for gist involves primarily top-down processing, whereas listening for specific information, as in a weather broadcast, involves primarily bottom-up processing to comprehend all the desired details.” (Vandergrift).
Conclusion
In ultimate conclusion, it is important to consider that listening is the most pertinent language skill, the comprehension of which is central to the language acquisition by learners. TESOL is obviously one of the essential factors of modern man as the role of English has reached a new zenith. For the acquisition of English by speakers of other languages, the theories and practice of TESOL can be found essential. The role of English as well as the teaching and learning process, i.e. TESOL, has increased tremendously n the modern world. The listening comprehension strategies and their various aspects can be essential in the process of TESOL. This paper has been found central in investigating some of the fundamental elements that relate the TESOL theories with listening comprehension. Further investigation into the topic can draw essential conclusions regarding the TESOL theories and listening comprehension.
References
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