Introduction
Hadrian was Roman emperor, his full name was Publius Ely Adrian. He was born most probably in Italic. In 85, Adrian has lost his father, and his guardian was the future Emperor Trayan, who was relative to him. Hadrian served in the army, together with Trayan took part in Dacia wars. The top position of Hadrian while Trayan ruling was governor of Syria (from 114). In 117 Trayan, who had no children, appointed him his successor. The new emperor continued the policy of Trayan while maintaining friendly relations with the Senate, but the sovereign has created a class of officials recruited from the class of riders. The genuine concern of the ruler of the public interest is sufficiently proved by the fact that most of his reign until 131, he held outside of Rome.
Particularly impressive were his trips to the western provinces in 121-123 and the East – in 123 -127 and 128 -131. According to the orders of Hadrian in 121-122 in the north of Britain between Solu Firth and Tayn triple, there was built a wall to protect the country against incursions from the north. This structure, the remnants of which survived, is called the shaft of Hadrian.
Hadrian renounced aggressive plans in Mesopotamia, and politics Empire acquired defensive. Strengthened border, many cities developed in accordance with the Public Works Department. Hadrian created the imperial mail. Among the reforms included the abolition of the Institute farm (the collection of taxes on a contract basis) and its replacement by direct taxes, the beginning of the codification of Roman law, as well as the establishment of lawyers standing up of the Imperial Council. Hadrian has been extensively involved in the management of horseback riders, gradually abandoning the common practice under previous emperors’ destination for the first office in the State (Birley, 2000, p121).
Beautiful, bright, witty, Hadrian received a good education and appreciated the Greek culture. It is a good understanding of mathematics, music, and painting and wrote not come down to us autobiography.
Hadrian’s contribution to the history of the Roman Empire
In 101 Hadrian held the position of quaestor. He was accepted for the study of the Latin language because of his bad pronunciation and reached the highest perfection and eloquence. Then he worked with protocols and Senate, becoming the closest Trayan man who accompanied him during Dacia wars at this time, he said, he had become addicted to wine, to adapt to the mores of Trayan, and has been richly rewarded. In 105, he was appointed as a national tribune.
During the second trip to dacs Trayan in 106 set him as the head of the first Legion of Minerva, then Hadrian was famous for many brilliant feats. Therefore, having received a gift from the Emperor – a diamond ring, Hadrian dreamt to be the heir. He was made praetor in 107, then he was sent as legate in Lower Pannonia, where he was to tame the Sarmatians, supported by military discipline, reining procurator, much exceeding their authority. Hadrian became consul in 108. While in this position, he learned from the Sura, which he will be adopted by Trayan. After the death of Sura, he became even closer to Trayan (Sherk, 1988, p277).
Having achieved power, Hadrian announced that he would act in accordance with the covenant of August, which was bequeathed to their successors did not seek to expand the empire, but only to protect. All his efforts he sent to establish peace throughout the rangelands. All the land of Euphrates and Tigris, won by Trayan, he immediately left and declared them free. With the disturbances in Judea and Mauritania, he had to suppress an armed hand. Subsequently, he traveled from Antioch to meet the remains of Trayan, and brought them to Rome. In a letter to senators, he requested an apology for failing to give the Senate to pronounce on the move to the imperial power – because it was hastily declared the soldiers because the state could not remain without an emperor.
Returning to Rome, he turned to current affairs, in particular the state mail, the need for which is long overdue. He forgave arrears to private debtors and provinces. Benefits of Nervo imposed on poor child-rearing, he has doubled, many of the senators gave large sums of money and generally raising the value and prestige of senatorial rank in the great height. In Rome, he was often present at the execution of Pretoria and the consuls of their official duties, participated in the feasts of friends, visited the patients two and three times a day, including some riders and libertine, to comfort them, kept their boards are always invited to their feasts(Birley, 2000, p127).
In Gaul, he facilitated the provision of all communities, has given them different privileges. From there, he moved to Germany and made a show of the Legion. When visiting the camp, he tried in front of all the ordinary soldier’s diets. Like Augustus, whom he tried to emulate in all, Hadrian with great care to enter into military affairs. He accurately identified the duties and costs strictly accountable defaulter and generosity worthy of honor. Thus he was able to restore military discipline, shaken with previous emperors.
In his travels, he wore the simplest clothing, met and spoke with people the most simple, and kept with them simply, without any arrogance. Then he went to Britain, where he had many useful improvements, including those ordered to build a wall over eighty miles, to be separated from ownership of the Romans barbarians. On the way, he drove to his native Spain and spent the winter here. In Tharrakon he has hardly killed a madman’s office, who dropped him with a sword. Hadrian managed to disarm him and conveyed the servants rushed. Then he in turn visited many other provinces. Perhaps no one does not overtake the Emperor so much land with such speed. The second trip was to his Ahai and Sicily, the third – to Africa. Then he went to Asia, met with the Parthian king Osdroi, returned to him a daughter, captured by Trayan, and even tried to seek his friendship. Everywhere he heard complaints about the procurator and the governors and severely scourges them if the charges were true. On the way to Egypt, he visited Arabia and then made a voyage up the Nile.
Hadrian was different during his life: the strict and cheerful, and friendly, and formidable, and unbridled, and slow and stingy and generous, and naive, and sham, and cruel and merciful. He did not have a good relationship with his wife and therefore had a lot of links on the side with married women and men. Of the latter, most of all he loved Antinous, and when he died during a trip to Egypt, the emperor mourned him like a woman. To friends, he was very generous, but he quarreled with many of them. Some were even destroyed or brought to suicide (Sherk, 1988, p274).
In science, poetry, and literature, he was very conversant, painted very well, played the harp, and sang. He had many poems about the objects of his passions. But equally well, and he owned a weapon, with a wide range. Too cold and heat, he was accustomed to such an extent that had never covered his head. He was characterized by remarkable oratorical skills and unusual memories. Some even say that he could simultaneously write, tell and talk with friends. All public statements, he knew thoroughly. In his rule there were famines, epidemics, earthquakes, all these misfortunes, he showed care, and many cities devastated by these disasters came to the rescue (Birley, 2000, p130).
At the end of life, Adrian began to suffer from the disease and then thought about his successor. Meanwhile, under the influence of the nature of his illness became much worse. Many of their friends were suspected in the claims to power.
The remembering about Hadrian
After becoming Emperor, Hadrian and all the time to abandon the policy of military aggression and accept the fact that Parthia and Armenia gained independence again. It should be noted that while Hadrian’s ruling there was no major military campaigns, the war also uploads almost no noise was very fond of soldiers for their exceptional care of the troops and for the fact that for them it was very generous with Parthians, he was always a friend, because removed from the king, who was given to them by Trayan. He allowed the Armenians to have their king, while Trayan’s ruling they had a Roman legate. From the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, he did not demand tribute imposed on them by Trayan in Albania and Iberian (Georgian), he had loyal friends, as well as their kings, he generously presented, although they refused to come to him with a visit.
Adrian began to take to the legions not only Roman citizens, but residents of the provinces and it helped to improve the army. Hadrian was very attentive with the affairs and perfectly known to the memory of all public records.
He tried to get along with different social groups to respect the Senate, concerned about the plebs, continuing the traditional policy of providing the “bread and circuses”, has raised public concern riding class, gave them leadership positions in the imperial office (before they were imperial freedman), and thereby laid the foundation formation of a large bureaucracy of full-fledged citizens.
”Hadrian forbade masters to kill slaves and ordered that the judges (and not the Lord) to make a conviction if the slaves that have earned. He banned the sale without giving a reason servant or slave procurer or operator of the gladiatorial school. Working prison for slaves and free people, he abolished it. Under its regulations, if a lord was killed in a house, the investigation was carried out not all the slaves, but only those who are nearby can hear anything” (Birley, 2000, p.134).
The beginning of Hadrian’s reign was marked by truly unprecedented in the history of Roman generosity.
His biographer writes that without losing sight of anything that could bring him to the location of people, he forgave the private debtors to the imperial treasury in Rome and in Italy untold amounts which they owed, and in the provinces – also huge amounts of outstanding arrears, and to further strengthen the general peace, he ordered to burn the forum divine Trayan, he has forbidden to take away in their private coffers, all amounts deposited in the Treasury for boys and girls, who have determined the amount Trayan to food, he made generous allowances Condition senators who destroyed no fault of their own, he added to the size, relying on senators – in line with the number of their children, and to many it is issued without delay means so that it was enough until the end of their lives not only his friends but also a large number of people from a wide range of his generosity opens the way for the execution of honorary positions (Birley, 2000, p134).
Hadrian has all the qualities of an excellent soldier, and distinguished by the same physical endurance, like Trayan, Hadrian was able to hold even gladiatorial weapons, while hunting he often personally killed lions.
Hadrian’s passions. Architecture
Roman architecture is further activated during the reign of Hadrian, who was not only a hot lover of art but he himself was engaged in hours of leisure. He enriched Rome with so many new buildings that earned the sobriquet of rebuilding (Restitutor). The most important among them is the temple of Venus and Rome, standing just to the Coliseum – the largest of the former in a town with two huge statues, bent one to another, and with a large portico, and the mausoleum of Hadrian, which began construction, and finished by his successor – «Moles Hadriani» and is cylindrical, two floors, stands on the square base and furnished with columns, it was piled up from travertine, marble-faced and crowned dome on top of which stood a bronze chariot with figure of traveling in the emperor, or, perhaps, cedar cones. Mausoleum of Hadrian even when gonorrhea has been transformed into a fortress, then lost its marble trim and the upper deck, and finally became the present St. Angela Castle. To the constructions of Hadrian, there also belongs the magnificent bridge, spread through the Tiber to the mausoleum, and there is near a big circus, disappeared without any trace.
Not far from Rome, in Tibure (Tivoli), there was built a luxury villa by the Emperor of its own plans, which was reproduced in miniature from the best monuments of Greek and Egyptian architecture. Of the buildings of Hadrian in the provinces, especially the many were made in Athens, which he, being a fan of Greek education, wanted to return the old brilliance. There he’s done worrying Temple of Olympic Zeus, which was initiated during Pisistrate, erected a temple of Zeus, and Gera, a few other churches, schools, sports, basilica, the theater at the foot of the Acropolis, made canals, roads, in a word, a new city, linking the old gate, extant. Regarding the architectural style of the era of Hadrian, it should be noted that it is not originality, is limited to more or less successful in a combination of different elements produced in the blossoming time of the ancient art – the style is cold-eclectic, an academic, but with his strong desire to monumentality and splendor, still featuring harmony and grace.
During the five centuries of the Roman Empire, none of the emperors are able to enjoy the arts as Hadrian did. A kind of tribute to the love of Greek art was Hadrian’s favor to his slave-Greek Antonio, a young man striking beauty, for the emperor-esthete he was a living embodiment of the ideal of pure harmony.
The fate of Antinous was not happy, he drowned in the Nile.
Mourning the dead, Hadrian officially declared him God there are a lot of images of Antinous.
Hadrian was a passionate traveler. None of the emperors visited such a number of countries and attended so many attractions, but Hadrian was able to see it.
In the outskirts of Rome, in Tibure Hadrian built a grand villa, which reproduced the various architectural styles and re-established corners of different countries “In order not to miss anything, it made it even underground kingdom”.
Broad construction activity initiated Hadrian also in Rome But he showed great humility and did not write his name on the facade of the building.
While Hadrian’s ruling Pantheon was rebuilt, because the old building Agrippa, Augustus colleague, was in very poor condition of the existing strong church with a unique dome actually a completely new construction, but Adrian tactfully preserved on the façade of the name of its first builder “Mark Agrippa, son Lucia, Consul for the third time, built”. Pantheon was the temple of ancient Rome, this is the only ancient building in Rome that has not turned into ruins and was not rebuilt.
Adrian himself was also in the role of the architect, and his project was built by the grand temple of Venus and Rome (the goddess of the city of Rome), but Apollodor from Damascus criticized the building for the poor aspect ratio (Kleiner, 2007, p85).
Hadrian was a person of complex psychology nature he was cranky, angry wit, he sometimes visited suspicious and cruel a wide range of shades of the psychological personality of Hadrian marked the ancient writers: “It happened seriously, and cheerful, friendly and menacing, and the unbridled discretion, stingy and generous, honest and hypocritical, cruel and merciful, always in all aspects of its life he has been variable” (Birley, 2000, p140).
Despite his tendency to criticize musicians, tragedians, comedians, grammar, rhetoricians, speakers, all professionals, it awarded high honors and made the rich, although it led them to the embarrassment of its scientists, who clearly did not comply with his profession, he did the rich and dignify honors, but removed them from the professional classes (Birley, 2000, p141).
“Hadrian was so eager to get the glory that a book about his own life, written by himself, he conveyed his freedman educated so that they have issued them on his own behalf” (Birley, 2000, p141).
Hadrian’s passions. Army
The first emperor, to whom belongs the honor to introduce major innovations was Hadrian. Ancient authors consider him a great reformer of the army. In fact, he was, above all, bringing the military institutions in line with the needs of his time. For transfers of reforms that affected the whole army of the whole, did not have a place in the study of the Legion; enough to indicate in a nutshell, that his work dealt with the whole: discipline, weapons, battle order, recruitment, organization boundaries.
So, he increased the responsibility of military tribune, reducing the excessive powers centurions, he changed the legions of armed horsemen, making it more suited to a successful opposition Peoples, to which Rome was then forced to fight (Brittons, Sarmatians, Armenians, Scythians), but also to some extent and infantry weapons, and he ordered the return to the construction of phalanges on the battlefield, etc. Legions were recruited regularly and exclusively for the place of the natives of the province in which the legion was scheduled located (Sherk, 1988, p90).
If the writers praised the establishment of Hadrian and consider reducing the ancient discipline, the Septimius Severus, in their view, by contrast, caused a bitter blow to the reforms. And indeed, this government was the author of a number of measures, which shocked supporters of the past. But apparently, he had very strong reasons for this: he had to make military service more attractive both for the soldiers and junior commanders. Therefore, he raised the salaries of legionaries, he gave them permission to wear a golden ring that has long been the privilege of horsemen, he eased his life in the field, allowing it to take the companion, if not officially recognized by the wives, he has provided new benefits to veterans, and he has allowed non-commissioned officers to form military colleagues. At the same time, he made the rank of centurion the first step in the career of a rider, more importantly, that he turned into the camp prefect Legion and gave him more power at the expense of limiting the powers of legate. It was the first step in the abolition of the highest military post, ending in the governance of one of his successors, Halle (Sherk, 1988).
In the II century, Emperor Hadrian established a new order of acquisition legions, ordered to recruit not only the Roman citizens but residents of the provinces, which further changed the composition of the Roman army.
At the military service in the voluntary recruitment men aged 17-20 were taken. In the event that volunteers are not enough, forced recruitment. Ligonier swears Emperor and was obliged to serve 25-30 years, becoming, thus, a professional warrior.
For service in the army, legionnaire got their regular salary. However, this does not preclude uprisings in the army, raised on economic grounds, but also because of the brutal discipline and hard work, by burdening the legionnaires.
The Roman Army I-II century was not paid, as sometimes portrayed. During this period the wage was only to auxiliary troops. Legions were completed of Romans, rather than foreign mercenaries. Salaries in the army are not a basis for determining the nature of the army, which depends primarily on the composition of the army. The Roman army was now a permanent army, the legions that are not dissolved after the crusades, as legions of the period. The army had sustained organizational forms, a hierarchy of command, a system of education and training, and has been an ongoing regular army. The army had restored the harsh military discipline, which has worsened during the period of civil wars.
The army was great support for imperial power and as such is an independent political force: legions proclaimed emperors of their leaders. According to Tacitus, the death of Nero set in motion all the legions and the military, after it was discovered the secret of the imperial power that the head of state can be done not only in Rome but in a different place.
The life of legions, as in war and in peacetime was strictly regulated. For the greater part of the day, legionnaires carried out the combatant exercises. Armed special educational shields and wooden swords, which were twice as heavy as combat weapons, legionnaires carried out training exercises. Horsemen practiced in the hurdles came to the attack on the infantry. Major unions have committed joint training hikes. Finally, all the soldiers and commanders exercised in running, swimming, wrestling. The drill helped to strengthen military discipline. Much attention was paid to the clarity of command. Representatives of the high command, up to the emperor, followed closely the state of military education, personally inspecting legions.
In addition to military exercises, soldiers were required to perform many construction activities. They erected camp construction and building, built roads, bridges, water pipelines, constructing a fortified frontier line, and monitor their safety.
Subsequently, a significant portion of these legions was shifted onto the shoulders of slaves. Slave labor at the borders has been erected huge defenses.
These facilities consisted of a shaft with impale and deep ditches. At the shafts raised observation towers, and stood guard positions. Behind the wall were built military roads, which border to move troops and war materials. These lines were covered fortified Roman border in the north of Britain – Hadrian shaft, between the Dniester and Prut in Basarabia – Troyan shaft and Africa.
Supplying the whole army with foodstuffs and military equipment is made through the special procurement authorities. Full soldier’s meal consisted of bread, bacon, and vinegar. In the sparsely populated border areas, soldiers were required to have a meat extract, organizing the hunting team. Clothes, weapons, and military equipment, issued by the State, in particular, were repaired in camp workshops.
Conclusion
Hadrian was the first holder of the throne, who considered the territory from the perspective not only of a single city of Rome. Empire was to become a living organism, not only in the center, but also in any part thereof, is not primitive accumulation captured and conquered the land, but a commonwealth in which each region and each nation would have its own proud identity. His strong, ongoing oversight of the state of affairs on the ground was caused by a desire to show that he really understands the desire of the provinces, for which appeared as a leader and universal unifying symbol.
On top of all this, Hadrian was a true expert in military affairs, tried to exercise constant control over the armies regularly visited troops, making sure to maintain their maximum level of combat skills and readiness. The policy of limiting the gains meant the need to strengthen the existing boundaries, resulting in a significant increase of border defense orders. Consequently, the military system is more than ever before, was built on armies, is constantly near the borders of the state, along which were built the most powerful facilities. One of the first fruits of this policy, due to short the British border, began to strengthen, and still preserve the best of all fortifications empire – namely, the Wall of Hadrian in Northern Britain.
When visiting the army Hadrian devoted all his attention, and no dimensions and details did not slip. He was strong in the most stringent of military discipline, the need to observe that even mentioned on the coins. Nevertheless, his frequent visits to the army, the exercises and shows and participation in them, his habit of sharing with them life and food, to live one with the life and customs of the soldiers caused a great liking to the emperor. Among the coin of the Roman province, had a unique series in honor of the ten major armies, noted the characteristics of each of them (these techniques were not used by numismatic predecessors Hadrian, who was apparently afraid of separatist tendencies).
Careful attention to the defense of borders contributed increasingly to stabilize the situation, resulting in civilian settlements surrounded with walls of military camps grew and prospered economically. Moreover, non-military tasks of peace-time, decide that the Roman soldiers are believed his duty, became more varied and ambitious: the soldiers were engaged in breeding horses, the production of uniforms, transport and protection of grain, the development of quarries, livestock.
The fighting during the rule of Hadrian was very rare. However, one major war had erupted at the end of his life: the uprising of Jews, but not in the Jewish diaspora, as in the previous reign. The reason was the creation of Hadrian, cosmopolitan views which run counter to Jewish separatist aspirations, the new Roman colony, and the temple in Jerusalem.
The brutal massacre of Hadrian with the Jews was not usual for him, because the imperial administration had acted, although without much innovation, but with skill and care. After considerable costs on the wars of Trayan Hadrian paid particular attention to the financial problems of state, seeking to improve the situation not so miserly economy or confiscation (he really burned receipt of huge number of bad debts of the treasury), but excluding unnecessary expenses.
Hadrian was also deeply and fruitfully engaged in legislative activities.
Thanks to the insistence of Hadrian, Roman law came in time to the Golden Age – the most productive and important period in its history. System of Justice is also experienced notable progress, an example which may serve as a new practice of appointing four visiting judges to administer justice in Italy (a very useful measure, in spite of protests in connection with the weakening authority of the Senate).
Moreover, to improve the standards of his own justice court in Rome, Hadrian gave a status group of legal experts, which is usually consulted by the rulers, uniting them in the imperial council, or the Concilium principis. Now Council had acquired a more official and responsible nature. On the usage of all the emperors, beginning with August, the friends convene to discuss the legal issues in a less formal setting, it was gone.
Hadrian was very sensitive to the basic features of the era. He participated in religious mysteries and showed deep interest in astrology and magic. Adrian shared modern tastes and honored tradition, viewed the sights and tirelessly engaged in literature, loved the company of linguists and wrote himself. He was a good artist, besides his interest in art brought to life a new direction Hadriatic painting, which is strongly influenced by Greek culture. It is from the time of the emperors Hadrian were pictured with curly vegetation on the face, often colored, idealized form, using a sharp contrast of light and shadows. A few surviving portraits convey the expressive features of the most energetic of Hadrian.
Aesthetic attitudes and aspirations embodied in the architecture of Hadrian time of his rule, and most of all – in a luxurious residence that he built for himself in Tibure that, on the outskirts of Rome, among the olive groves of southern slopes. The complex of interconnected buildings, and standing alone, constituted the “villa of Hadrian, the city and play structure, which Hadrian admired during his travels, became the harbinger of a series of bold and original forms. At the initiative of inquiring mind restless emperor talented architects, experimenters built temerarious facilities, skillfully using terrain roughness, demonstrating technical excellence of concrete faced with brick structures. These buildings are all over – an abundance of curved shapes of varying complexity, and is hardly possible to find simple straight lines.
The climax of the revolution in the architecture of the era was the building of Hadrian pantheon in the Field of Mars in Rome. Completely change the look of a temple built another of Augustus, Agrippa, architect Hadrian built a circular building. Shrine of such forms have been known since ancient times, but the opening of the concrete is allowed to create buildings round a much larger size, embodying the most ambitious projects. For a rectangular colonnade spacious gallery is actually the Rotunda, the diameter of which is equal to its height.
References
Birley Anthony 2000, Hadrian : The Restless Emperor (Roman Imperial Biographies), Routledge; 1 edition.
Boardman John 2001, Griffin Jasper , Murray Oswyn , The Oxford History of the Roman World, Oxford University Press, USA.
Heather Peter 2007, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians, Oxford University Press, USA.
Kleiner Fred S. 2006, A History of Roman Art, Wadsworth Publishing; 1 edition.
Sherk Robert K. 1988, The Roman Empire: Augustus to Hadrian, Cambridge University Press.