Abstract
Quality has a strong relationship between methods used in ECD programs and the development of the child based on measurable outcomes. Typically, quality is the underlying indicator of the level of success in the development of the child evaluated against cognition, the ability of the child to communicate using language appropriately, the ability of the child to self-regulate oneself, language acquistion skills and competence, the level of competence in social skills, the ability to acquire competence in early literacy skills, make observations, and the motivation to play and do other tasks based on the underlying development the child achieves. The approaches used in ECD programs, especially preschool programs and custodial programs, which have their defining characteristics that have their quality implications on the child and consequent development of the child. It is worth noting that the development of the child is based on multidisciplinary disciplines, with their contributions to quality and the ultimate development of the child. However, the approaches factor strong similarities in the ultimate goal of attaining the ultimate goal of development of the child defined by the factors such as cognition development mentioned above, with their own differences based on their settings, though their differences are small.
Introduction
Quality is a crucial element in children’s development. The assessment of impact of quality on the children’s development draws on the multidisciplinary development methods used to impart quality in children in early childhood development programs in the United States, which includes custodial care programs and preschool programs. Despite the strengths and weaknesses of each of the programs, these methods underpin the ability of the child to acquire cognitive development and other essential elements necessary from the child based on the quality of each program.
Typically, the underlying factors that decide on the quality imparted on children and eventual consequences of quality on the education and development of children are strongly related to the methods used in early childhood education and development of children in the United States. The approaches used in early childhood education and development in the United States are multidisciplinary, borrowing from the disciplines of Education, Sociology, Psychology, American Studies, Anthropology, and Cognitive Science. The interdisciplinary nature of early childhood education and development is practically applied on two specific programs which include custodial care programs and preschool programs. These programs have quality characteristics, based on quality metrics, viewed historically and from modern perspectives with ultimate effects on the development of children in the United States. Typically, quality has a direct implication on the education and development of the child with each method having its own implications due to each method’s quality characteristics and implication on the development of the child (Santrock, 1997; Piaget, 1980). An examination of the similarities and differences between the two approaches crystalizes their direct quality effects, which have eventual implications on the development of the child. Typically, both of these approaches form the basis of the study. As mentioned above, custodial and preschool programs are some of the early childhood development programs used in the education and development of children in the United States. It is worth noting that custodial care programs were designed to primarily accomodate working class families by tending to the basic and hygienic needs of their children, whereas preschool programs were traditionally designed for middle class families in fostering their children’s cognitive and social development. It is crucial to note the underlying rationale for parents selecting a specific program to impart education and development in their children is based on a diversity of reasons. Crucial among the underlying reasons is the economic level of income for the parent, the perceptions about the benefits about the likely quality and outcome of the program, and other social factors. Typically, social factors can be influenced by underlying social theories such as positive cognition development of the child, underlying social cultural processes (Lightfoot, 1988; Brown, 1996; Wertsch, 1985). However, it is crucial to note that the underlying theories identified to have direct implications on quality that has direct impact on the children’s education and development have some degree of contention. One of the social theories include Piaget’s social theory which identifies a strong relationship between personality and effectiveness, intellectual development, and sociomoral development which is focused on the development of knowledge in the child and ultimate implications on the child’s development. However, from the educational point of view, different approaches with different implications of quality have eventual implications on the development of the child. Basically, that includes approaches such as play and school readiness programs (Wertsch, Minick, & Arns, 1984).
It is crucial to note the interdisciplinary nature of the development of the child and the implications of quality on the development of the child. One such discipline factors the social cognition development of the mind and the underlying theoretical link between social cognition of the mind of the child, the child’s perceptions on quality, and other underlying factors that might affect the quality of knowledge inculcated into the mind of the student. Such factors include values, attitude and beliefs, role of other people such as parents and teachers in the lives of the children, and a child and the parent’s desires (Brown, 1996).
Typically, the perceptions about quality and quality programs are diverse, but converge at specific points such as factors which include providing individual attention to the children, active participation of the teaching staff to provide an appropriate environment for the development of the child, and additional elements that impact quality to the development environment (Stipek, Feiler, Daniels & Milburn, 1995). However, quality borrows from other disciplines such as education where quality is viewed from the educational context as providing a learning environment constituting quality learners, who can be described as having good nutrition and health, experienced positive psychological development, regular in the learning process, receives family support in the learning and development process, and consists of appropriate physical learning environments. Other elements that define a quality learning environment include a peaceful and safe learning environment for children constituting psychological elements, high quality content, and quality processes. Typically, these elements have implications on quality which has a direct effect on the development of the child (Stipek, Feiler, Daniels & Milburn, 1995; Strickland & Morrow, 2000).
It has been argued that social economic factors such cultural issues and income levels of parents have an impact on quality with a direct impact on the development of the child. Thus, several studies conclude that quality is significantly influenced by the poverty levels of the parents and the affluence of their backgrounds. In addition to that, other theories that have been identified to have a direct impact on quality which translates to the development of the child includes psychological theories, anthropological connections between quality and the development of the child, and the cognitive development of the child. It is a multipronged comparative study with the readiness program and the paly programs forming the underlying pillars of the study. Typically, school readiness programs are designed with the underlying objective to inculcate educational capabilities that form the foundation of educational success in the future of the child (Tabors,1997).
However, it is crucial to identify what really constitutes the development of the child and the parameters that define development of the child. Development, from the perspective of education and other underlying social theories includes social behavior of the child, cognitive and language development of the child, health and physical growth of the child, and emotional development that the child develops and their relationship with parents, among other parameters used in the development of children. Typically quality has a direct impact on the development of the child and different researchers have developed different quality measurement metrics to determine quality in early childhood development programs Thompson, 1995).
Typically, the study endeavors to answer the research questions on the the impact of quality in children’s development. It focuses on the early childhood education and development and underlying concepts to conclude on the effects of quality on the development of the child.
Quality in child care is defined from different perspectives. One of the definitions of quality is based on, by Schick:
- The view from the perspective of the contextual and adult-work environmental dimensions of quality such as staff wages, goal consensus, the exercising of autonomy to make professional judgments, workload and job satisfaction, p.2
Another approach to quality is based on, Schick:
- Child care that is characteristically warm, supportive interactions with adults in a safe, healthy and stimulating environment, where early education and trusting relationships combine to support individual children’s physical, emotional, social and intellectual development, p4
However, an historical perspective of quality entails that quality is the extent of worth underpinned by social, cultural, values, beliefs, processes, and effectiveness of ECD programs that have evolved with time.
Problem Statement
The underlying implications of quality on the development and education of children in early childhood development programs in the United States presents a significant challenge on the role of quality and its long term and shot term development of the child. Preschool and custodial programs in early childhood development provide a significant challenge in identifying their implications of quality on the education and development of the child.
The Aim
The aim of the research is to determine the impact of quality on the development of children in early childhood education and development programs in the United States, which include custodial and preschool programs.
Research questions
- What constitutes children development?
- What are the basic dimensions of quality in child development?
- What are preschool programs and their implications on child development?
- What are play programs and their implications on child development?
- How does preschool and play programs vary from each other
Research Objectives
- To identify the underlying perspectives of quality and quality metrics associated with the ECS programs.
- To study the underlying characteristics of preschool, readiness, and custodial programs
- To conduct research on relevant literature and multidisciplinary theories associated with the development of the child.
Significance of the Study
The study forms a strong foundation for identifying the most appropriate method of imparting development in the child based desirable qualities that characterize the approaches used in diverse backgrounds of parents and other stakeholders involved in early childhood development of children.
Literature Review
Research has shown a strong relationship between quality and the education and development of the child in the United States (US). Typically, that is based on a number of theories underlying the development of the child, and factors that have influential effects on the education and development of the child in two settings, the play and the readiness programs. Each of the approaches, based on the underlying learning concepts and theories, contribute significantly to quality and therefore the development of the child. The underlying theories and concepts are multidisciplinary and borrow from education, sociology, psychology, American studies, anthropology, and the science of cognition. It is crucial therefore crucial to take turns and conduct an in-depth investigation of the disciplines and their contributions of quality, which has a direct impact on the development of the child. Moreover, the income levels of the parents, social cultural issues, and other issues related to quality in the development of the child. In addition to that, the strength of the literature is a review on schools in affluent communities, poor communities, and differences between custodial and preschool programs. On the other hand, it is worth examining what constitutes quality and development of the child and the relationship between quality and the education and development of the child.
Quality
Quality, the underlying element that affects the development of the child is defined based on different metrics that have direct impact on the development of the child. Quality, therefore, is variedly determined on different underlying items such as the child care setting and the nature of interactions between the child caregiver and the child (Thompson, 1995).. These have been identified as underlying principles upon which quality is imparted in the child. Typically, these elements are reflected on the adult child ratio provided in any childcare program be it preschool or play programs. Typically the child adult ratio provides the number of adult staff involved in providing care for the child over a specific period of time (Blau, 2000). It is established that higher rations and lower rations have direct impact on the quality imparted on the child and ultimate development of the child. Research shows that when the ratio between the child and the adult is low, high quality scores have been experienced in the development of the child, thus showing that low rations have positive impact on the development of the child (Rao, Koong, Kwong & Wong, 2003). In addition to that, lower rations have resulted in high process qualities (Rao, Koong, Kwong & Wong, 2003). On the other hand, low rations have strong relationships between the better child care outcomes. On the other hand, high rations have been identified to have low process qualities, and gradually impacted negatively on the development of the child. However, when he changes in rations are not significantly varied, there is little or no significant changes in the ultimate effects on the quality imparted on the child.
Other factors identified to have direct implications on quality include the group size of the children in a child care setting. Typically, group size affects both preschool and play programs despite the fact that the children come from affluent communities or poor communities. Typically, research shows a big group size reduces the implications of quality in the child which has direct implications on the education and development of the child (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford & Howes, 2002)
Quality has several underlying elements that contribute to the child’s development. It has been established that the quality of education and training of the caregiver provides another underlying influence on the outcome of quality on the child and consequent development of the child. Typically, the type and level of education of the caregiver, the training one undertakes before becoming a caregiver, and is a strong determinant factor on the quality imparted on the child and consequently the development of the child (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford & Howes, 2002).
However, to establish the facts underlying the study on the implications of quality on the development of the child in the United States, it is crucial to examine other how different school program provide early childhood care and the quality aspects associated with the programs in the development of the child. Typically, the approach consists of preschool and play programs as discussed in the following section.
Play Programs
The play programs are among the approaches used prepare children for their development in their early childhood. However, it is crucial to note that paly and preschool development where the child is prepared for preschool life. Typically, play is viewed as a providing the child with the school readiness based on its ability to impact the abilities in the child to be dramatic and to be imaginative, a technique that the child develops (Smilansky, 1968). This type of play is regarded as socio-dramatic, which demands that the child take certain roles, while making social interactions and including the use of language which leads to the development of the language lexicon of the student. Play tasks are designed to last for at least 10 minutes with profound effect on the development of the child. However, it is crucial to note that the elements that define quality are included in the play program as children undertake the play tasks in their development, with consequent implications on their ultimate development. It is crucial to note that children might be required to pretend on different phases in play tasks that are distinguished into dramatic play and socio-dramatic play. Thus, one could note that both approaches have their implications on the development of the child. In their differences, the Socio-dramatic play is a combination of other prentice aspects such as when a child pretends to be a policeman.
In theory, play provides a significant ability for the child to develop by enabling the child to show behavioral characteristics that are beyond their present abilities and mastery. Thus, the child develops a mental capability to be imaginative, which is one of the elements of play, children are able to take different roles in the play scenario and pretend to provide solutions to specific problems, and use language in the process of communicating, thus develop their language use and competence (Bodrova & Leong, 1998). It is important to note that play is a significant element during the later years of a toddler’s development and growth. In addition to that, during the development of the child based on the play program, the child uses objects that act as imageries, thus enabling the child develop appropriate skills for later school education and development which become more sophisticated as the child development progresses (Bodrova & Leong, 2003). In the development process of the child, play plays a significant role as the child develops the cognitive abilities to acquire sophisticated play skills that benefit the cognitive development of the child. typically, other elements in the child that are developed the psychological faculties of the mind of the child, the educational or academic abilities start developing, their ability to interact socially, and their perceptions about the physical world. It is an approach that integrates approaches from different disciplines as mentioned elsewhere in the paper, being multidisciplinary.
In theory, play plays a significant role in the development of the cognitive abilities of the child as an individual develops the abilities to renounce one’s self and endeavors to conform to the current situation and rules of the play environment. It is crucial to note that sometimes children involved in dramatic play at times might suspend the activities they are undertaking to renegotiate a certain issue. Typically, that is one of the quality elements that show the level of development of the child. It is possible, however, for the play to disintegrate and break if the rules of the game are not adhered to. Implying the children has acquired a certain level of development in different aspects that define the development of the child. However, there is the distinction between free play and dramatic play. In the sense of free play, the child motivated to conduct play activities based on impulsive response. It is typically meant to satisfy one’s own curiosity and pleasure. However, in the current study, both free play and dramatic play are viewed to contribute significantly to the development of the child.
As mentioned elsewhere in the study, one of the fundamental elements that play a significant role in the development of the child is the environment that consists of adults. Typically, the adult to children ratio determine the extent of quality imparted in the child. Thus, the teacher, who constitutes the adults in the play program, and as a fundamental quality component has a strong influence in the development of the child. Typically, the teacher plays a significant role in educating the children on how to play and the restrictions or rules to follow. In that respect, the level of training of the teacher is one aspect that influences the quality imparted in the child and the consequent development of the child in the early childhood development program. Roskos and Neuman (2001) researched and concluded that the teacher plays a significant role in imparting quality in the child in the form of making observations, acting as a co-player, and as a stage manager. It is crucial, based on their level and quality of training for the teacher to make close observations during a play to identify and determine the most appropriate point to intervene, when to intervene, and how to intervene on a play. Typically, the teacher’s intervention is significant and its level of significance is influenced by the theme of the play and the desired level of quality to impart in the child. It is therefore, typical for the teacher to model, guide, demonstrate, and elaborate what needs to be done by the children. Therefore, the quality imparted in children determines the level of development and readiness that children acquire to join school.
It is important to note that once children have developed, based on the underlying preparations based on the play program, they become ready to join school programs based on underlying readiness factors. The imparted quality in the children strongly influences the level of acquistion of skills and abilities that are reflected in later years of educational development in life. Play, according to research, shows a strong relationship between abilities of the child in develop and the direct relationship between the play factors and their development. A number of play factors that affect quality in the child that directly affects their development are diverse as discussed below.
One of the factors with strong relationship with quality, play, and development is the ability developed in the child to self-regulation. Early childhood development draws on self-regulation, as a fundamental element of the children’s development. Self-regulation is viewed as “development may be viewed as an increasing capacity for self-regulation, not so much in the specifics of individual behaviors but in the child’s ability to function more independently in personal and social contexts” (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 26). Typically, self-regulation has distinctive implications on quality, with its direct impact on the development of the child. Self-regulation enables he child to develop in health and mental faculties distinctly associated with the ability of the child to take control of their thinking processes, and their emotions. On the other hand, it is crucial to note that play can be translated into a play plans that are integrated in the education of the child. Typically, the approach involves using a written description of the child’s schedules activities during the day. Usually, that comes in the form of a play plan. The play plan includes the roles the child is to take during the day in the play program, the underlying situations, and the ability of more than one child to plan together. That affects the development of the child as the child eventually develops writing skills, which is referred to as scaffolded writing. Thus, the child is able to develop at earlier stage literacy skills. In addition to that, the approach enables the child develop their cognitive abilities, their self-regulation capabilities, and their social development. In addition to that, the child is bale to develop in their impulsive controls, thus enabling the child to develop the abilities to be ready for school.
From the perspective of socialization, play programs provide an environment that enables the development of social competence of the child. According to studies by Fromberg (1999), play is a significant contributor to the development of social behavior among children. In the perspectives of Fromberg (1999), children who have developed on the play program show a significant level of intellectual and social competence. Typically, the child is able to develop a degree of readiness for early childhood education with their intense involvement in goal oriented tasks.
Language is identified as one of the tools that are crucial to the development of the child in joining early childhood programs. Language, according to Dickinson and Tabors (2001) provides an excellent based for evaluating the development of the child for their readiness to join school. Typically, Tabors (2001) realizes in their research that language plays a crucial role in the social and cognitive development of the child. Play programs provide an enabling environment for the development of language competencies in the child. One such a situation is where children take the role of an adult. In that role, the child is able to communicate with other children using language as a tool to enable understanding and to negotiate. One of the quality aspects that children gain when speaking through pretense by taking the role of adults is language speech and style. According to Anderson (1986), speaking on play programs has been established to possess profound effects on the development of the child. Other aspects of play programs include the competence of literacy acquistion capabilities.
Literacy skills provide the child with the competence required in their education and development in early and later years of development. It is curial to note that dramatic play has been identified to provide positive development in the child’s literacy skills. Other elements identified to provide competencies in the quality and therefore the development of the child are scaffolded writing, a techniques that draws on repetitive task performance by the child based on the guidance provided by the teacher. Typically, the technique enables the use of lines and letters and repletion of symbols by the child under the guidance of the teacher. The technique enables the child develop the ability to link different words with different sounds. That enables the child become competent in understanding the symbolic relationships of printed text; comprehend the patterns of words and their usage, and ability to enhance their writing skills. Thus, one is able to conclude that play draws on elements such as symbols that children use to symbolize different activities, represent objects and activities, stimulate and improve imagination, and enable them use words, propos, and actions to communicate in their development process. However, it is crucial to note that children at different ages require object that are modified to meet their growth and development needs. Research has shown a strong relationship between quality and development. Typically, the underlying motivation in the play program is essential in deciding the level of development of the child.
Play and motivation are essentially interlinked in the sense of the support the children get in their development. Typically, the play area has a chart field with different types of letters and other materials which form the underlying motivation for the child to learn. Such an environment has been identified to provide children in play programs with the ability to pretend during their growth and development. However, for the study looks at another approach to crystallize both approaches used in imparting quality in the child and therefore the development of the child.
School Readiness Programs
Having established the underlying characteristics of play programs, which include elements such as self-regulation, play and motivation, development and competence in social skills, competence in the use of language, and early literacy skills, it is crucial to examine the characteristics of preschool programs to crystalize the difference between play and preschool programs (Fabricius, 1979; (Dalton, 1991).
Research shows that school readiness programs and play programs draw from the same context5. Typically, that includes the social, physical, and cognitive development of the child. In addition to that, school readiness programs also draw on the basic elements of quality defined as quality metrics for any program. Thus, the approaches used to impart development in the child based on any approach have their own quality implications on the development of the child.
However, it is crucial to identify the basic elements that constitute readiness. Readiness is the characteristic attainment of the mental and physical ability connected with the emotional development, behavioral characteristics, and cognitive competencies required for learning in a school environment. It also involves a combination of the mentioned factors in the child to acquire the competence to work successfully in a school learning environment (Fabricius, 1979; Dalton, 1991).
Typically, school readiness programs provide the child with the ability to follow activities that follow a specific pattern in school, ability to show a sense of independence when carrying out learning tasks, ability to socially mix and cooperate with other children, and the ability to work under specified rules and regulations. In addition to that, the preschool program qualifies a child to identify colors words, sounds, to count, and ability to write (Fabricius, 1979).
School readiness programs provide the basis for an active learning environment that relies on the use of objects or learning materials in the development of the child. The use of objects is a contrast established between play and school readiness programs. Typically, the use of objects supports the child in cognitive development as they are allowed to use their minds to manipulate the objects. It is crucial to note that play learning enables the children to pretend and manipulate situations and negotiate around problems. On the other hand, readiness programs enable the child develop cognitively by manipulating objects. Readiness programs support cognitive development by enabling the child reflect on actions, develop questions about situations and seek to answer the questions on their reflections. Typically, the development process actively involves physical activities that arouse mental activities during the physical interactions with objects. Typically, the underlying component is to understand the world through the mental inquiries and actions in the physical world (Dalton, 1991).
One fundamental component of the readiness program is the element of problem solving. Readiness programs provide the learner with the ability to identify approaches to solve problems they encounter in their development process. The process of identifying and seeking for a solution implies learning gets stimulated in the mind of the child (Fabricius, 1979).
One other underlying element of the readiness program is the motivation effect on the child. it is the internal drive to learn springing from the child that motivates the child and stimulates a learning element. Typically, the child triggers personal interests, which trigger questions, and stimulate the desire to explore, experiment, and construct knowledge and understanding.
Among the essentials of discovery that enable development in the child include the ability of the children to talks about their experiences. Talking about their experiences involves the use of language, a crucial communication component in the child (Bruner, 1985). The discussion environment allows children to talk about their current activities, encourage conversation with adults, and what they are doing at a particular point in time. Thus, the readiness program is based on the active learning paradigm.
The active learning paradigm also requires that the child gets involved in combining different materials in their learning environment with the support of adults. Here the children play with materials such as sand whose shape they easily manipulate and change shape in the learning process. In addition to that, children use other tools that are strongly related to their abilities in transforming objects, thus enabling active learning. It is worth noting that while children carry out such activities, they are developing their health and mental faculties. Thus, the impact on quality is strongly related to the elements discussed above on school readiness programs, and their direct implications on the development of the child. That leads to the need to study the effects of schools in affluent and poor communities, their implications on quality and eventually the impact on the development of the child (Dalton, 1991).
As mentioned above, communication is fundamental component in imparting quality in the child. The child becomes competent in linguistic competence, where the child becomes competent in the use of the language, the syntax of the language used in communication, and the ability to phrase word and structure the words into sentences. On the other hand, the communication component could require sociolinguistic competence that denotes the underlying communication quality and ability by the child to respond in any communication setting. Other issues inherent in the communication component include the ability to repair communication breakdown when such issues arise ((Fabricius, 1979).
Effect of Affluent and Poor Communities
Profound and significant implications of quality on the development of the child are strongly related to the income levels and economic background of the parents. Research shows a strong relationship between quality, development, and prevailing economic background. It has been established that inequalities in income levels provide a significant impact on the development of the child in terms of cognitive development and other quality metrics discussed in the paper. One of the underlying elements of development of the child is cognitive development. It is evident from available literature that the family type based on income levels directly affects the cognition development of the child. Low income families find the cognition development of the children low as compared with high income families. Thus, level show a wide gap in stimulating support for cognition development in the child and therefore the ultimate impact of quality on the development of the child. Typically, that translates to the quality of child rearing environments based on an economic model (Astington, 1993).
That leads to the conclusion, based on an economic model that opportunities that could be exploited by disadvantaged communities have less educational achievements compared with economically well-endowed families. A strong relationship between social economic factors, quality and the development of the child has very strong implications on the development of the child. Typically, the social economic level of the parent has a strong influence on the relationship between the child and the parent, resulting in weak bonding between mother and child, thus causing weak response and stimuli on the children and their development. Social economic factors also affect development in the language of the student adversely, resulting in poor health, and their health. However, it is crucial to evaluate the effectiveness of the early childhood development programs to crystalize the rationale for their use in the development of the child as shown in figure 1 below.
The Effectiveness of play and preschool Models
It is worth, in crystallizing the differences between play and preschool programs to establish a benchmarks against which they could be evaluated and the quality implications on the development of the child. Typically, an analysis of the benchmark elements shows that overall development of the child is based on cognitive development outcomes of the child, social competence and outcomes of the child, the development of the health of the child, economic efficiency, and other interventional effects on the development of the child.
Typically, the model shows the quality factors and their impact on the development of the child that models need to embrace in figure 1 above.
History of American Education
A brief history of the American history on education provides a rich context for the current study which shows that the historical foundation provided the basis for emphasizing on early childhood development. However with the evolution of time, different approaches have been developed in addressing early childhood development in the United States (Oswald, 2003). That is also based on the policies on early childhood development formulated over time.
Typically, early childhood development and education is historically based on the descent of Froebel, who was among the finding fathers of modern practices and principles of ECD education in the United Sates. At the time, learning was imparted on the child through internalization methods. Each of the children involved in their education and development were required to provide an environment in their minds where they internalized their knowledge to be reproduced and used later. The approach was teacher centered. However, later methods which formed the basis for the modern development required that the development and education of the child is learner centered instead of being teacher centered. That was the basis for forming the foundation of modern practices in early childhood education and development in the United Sates (Oswald, 2003).
The underlying principles and practices of ECD development from an historical perspective shows that the pioneers advocated for different materials for children of different ages. That suggestion was based on the assumption that nature had a strong role and influence on the development of the child and the type of materials to use in their development (Oswald, 2003). According to the pioneers, each of the subjects to be learnt were arranged in order based on the assumption that noting was beyond comprehension. It was a process with a universal beginning and a specific or particular ending. Thus, the stages of cognitive development for the development and appropriate curricula development to meet the needs of the child were based on the underlying principles of universality to specific point. It was based on the assumption that children from both poor and rich backgrounds could be accommodated in such an ECD education system. ECD was regarded as an education system that significantly provided a ladder through which each child irrespective of their backgrounds could grow and attain a level of status with the interference of their backgrounds, in this case either poor or rich (Oswald, 2003).
One of the proponents and founders of modern ECD programs was Comenius. Comenius proposed a multilayered system of EC education which included infancy, vernacular school, Latin school, and University and Travel schools. To be more specific, the infancy program could be directly translated to its equivalent being kindergarten and nursery schools. However, there were other successive developments and theorists in formulating different fashions of ECD programs. These include Rousseua’s theoretical propositions that regard the development of the child to be separate and distinct from each stage. Among the elements that defined this theory is the assumption that a child was an animal and not yet a human being. Typically, that formed the basis for arguing, according to the theory, which the child should be taken through infancy and other stages of growth and development. That led to the development of the new models of early childhood education and development. One such model was the preschool program. The preschool program, according to the history of early childhood development was based on the argument that early childhood development is fundamental to the growth and development of the child (Oswald, 2003).
In a nutshell, preschool and custodial programs were regarded as crucial to the development of the child in the 1920s. It was at that time that people started to work outside their homes requiring that the child be exposed to early education and development for several hours in a day pre-school programs at the time were trending in acquiring similarities with custodial programs at the time. However, at the time, there was a lot of stigma associated with custodial programs, a prejudice associated with low income families that was fading with time. However, preschool programs showed a significant positive impact on the development of the child who was either black or white (Oswald, 2003).
According to a number of investigations, preschool programs contributed significantly to the aversion of the prejudice especially inherent with black children who showed a significant risk of failure to attend and complete school. The method of education and development of children from the black community showed a significant effect on the positive development and education of the child and positive economic value over custodial programs. Thus, the economic value and other benefits associated with the early development of the child lead to the wholesale acceptance and implementation of the preschool program through the United Sates. That was in contrast to custodial programs that were viewed not to serve the interest of the child. it is worth noting at this point that preschool programs were a byproduct of public policy, where working mothers and other high income groups were interested in investing for the development and growth of their children.
Culture and Education
The fundamental elements of education are embedded in culture. Cultural capital constitutes the underlying component in determining the attitude and quality developed into programs used in ECD education and development and the ultimate impact on the quality of such culturally influenced ECD methods in the development of the child. It is crucial, however to note that the common elements in phycology and sociology affect the cultural orientation and educational development of the child discussed elsewhere in the paper (Oswald, 2003).
Developmental Psychology
In theory and practice, development of the child is based on underlying principles of psychology for human beings. Typically, development, from the perspective of developmental psychology is a lifetime process that has no distinct boundary at which it begins in the life of the child. However, in the current context, the assumption is based on the quality implications of school readiness and play programs and the consequent implication on the education and development of the child.
Typically, the principles and theories underlying the development of the child are based on the development of motor skills, which are important for the well-functioning of the child. However the need to understand the actual definition of development in the context of the study is important. Development is defined as “patterns of change over time which begin at conception and continue throughout the life span”. In a broader sense, the definition draws on biological changes that might include the physical development of the child, changes in emotional perceptions, and the cognitive development of the child. Typically, the definition is in line with the development that is experienced in readiness and play programs for children in the United States. Development therefore is an integration and differentiation process. Integration constitutes using the basic behavioral elements into higher structured forms. On the other hand, differentiation provides the basis for the child to distinguish between elements in the environment and manipulate them and emerging situations to solve a problem. Development might include historical perspectives such as normative history-graded influences and Chronological age development, among other approaches to development (Oswald, 2003).
Typically, development in different forms is regarded as continues process that the child is exposed. However, there is the need to understand some contentious issues such as the discontinuity in development due to certain traits. However, the entire theory on development regards development from the continuity and discontinuity perspectives. It is worth concluding that the baseline theories on development are supported in the development of the child either directly or indirectly in early childhood development in the United States based on the readiness and the play program models. However, there is the question on the anthropology of the child in relation to their development (Oswald, 2003).
Anthropological Theory
The anthropological theory draws on cultural essentialism and cultural anxiety (Kuper, 1999). Typically, that signifying the implications of cultural essentialism and cultural anxiety on the education and development of the child in early childhood development programs in USA. Typically, the anthropological model factors genuine concerns about the cultural aspects that surround different children in their early development years, beliefs, political concerns and influences, conceptions of human beings as cultural beings differentiated by the cultural boundaries established and developed by the human beings themselves (Todorov, 1993). However, components such as anxiety do not define culture, but border the influence to create influence on the behaviors and perceptions of people in a cultural environment (Parekh, 2000).
Culture, therefore, constitutes the elements of social culture that has overall impact on the relationship between different people and the boundaries existing between the individuals, peer culture that is developed between the children in early childhood development programs, and the culture established in social networks (Stolcke, 1995; Turner, 1993). However culture has an intricate implication on the development of the child as it is strongly related to the adults who provide support and an environment for the development of the child. Typically, cultural backgrounds have a strong relationship in explaining the developmental attainments of the children based on the underlying quality if imparting instructions and other essential ingredients for the development of the child (Parekh, 2000; Touraine, 1997; Trouillot, 2002).
Cognition
Cognition is a fundamental concept in the development of any child. Cognition is strongly related to the element of perception and resulting actions. Thus, when a child’s cognition capabilities are developed, their abilities to discriminate actions and words develop enabling development in discriminating different tasks and objects in the learning environment (Schick, n.d). Other elements associated with cognition include call cognition which demands that tasks be performed based on recall, which is based on abstract representations. However it is crucial to note that motor capabilities are central to the discrimination process (Schick, n.d).
In theory, the cognition development of the child in any of the programs be they preschool or custodial care programs with either the play or the readiness program provides a basis for argument on the cumulative effects on quality and eventual implications on their development.
Sociology of Education
From the perspective of the sociology of education, the effect of quality on the development of the child is analogous to the ultimate implications of early childhood development methods on the development of the child (Garrison, 1998). That is based on the social dynamics of early childhood development methods based on the diversity and quality inherent in the methods that shape the development of the child to acquire the competence of self-regulation, social skills, lexical competence and use of language, early literacy skills, and underlying motivation to perform various developmental tasks (Astington, 1993).
It is therefore, from the social perspective in the sociology of education that the quality of approach used is variedly affected by social factors such as gender, economic status of the parents, race, gender, and class positively or negatively affects the development of the child.
It is worth noting from the historical perspective that sociology has been the underlying element that stimulated the industrial revolution and consequently the welfare state. However, successive transformation of sociology based on different theoretical models such as the structural functional theory leads to the understanding coined in the modern application of sociology and its impact on quality and consequent development of the child. Typically, that involves the development of the child from the perspective of the critical reflection during the development process and ethnographic understanding in the context of quality and its effects on the development of the child (Garrison, 1998).
Custodial Programs
The quality factors in custodial programs provides the child with the development depends on the level the teacher has attained, quality of the teacher’s support, the level of interaction of the teacher and the child, and their experience in handling children in custodial programs. In addition to that, the environment the custodial program operates such as the frequency of interaction between the mother and the child, parental support, income level of the parents, and the health of the child with their quality characteristics had eventual implications on the development of the child (Garrison, 1998).
Discussion
The multidisciplinary study based on theories and literature review on different early childhood development paradigms has shown that quality has a strong implication on the development of the child. The questionnaires were distributed among the six states based on the underlying advantages of using questionnaires. Results show high response rates for the administered questionnaires on the impact of the quality elements on the development of the child based on different ECD development programs. In this case, the data indicate below is for response of teachers to ECD programs in USA constituting responses to preschool and ready programs.
In summary it shows that both custodial and preschool programs are effective in their quality implications on the development of the child, with significant differences arising between the approaches used in preschool and custodial programs.
On the other hand, quality is viewed as a dispensable element for the development of the child and is based on underlying principles of quality. Typically, quality and the impact each of the methods has on the development of the child is evident from the underlying principle of quality, the differences and similarities of the methods. It is clear that preschool programs and day care programs provide support for children with different backgrounds and indirect support for parents based on the background of each parent. It is however, crucial to note that children from either of the programs have similar needs required for their development. Among the needs that reflect the quality of each program is the cognition development of the child and other early childhood development needs. However, one of the crucial points is the fundamental similarities associated with each program. The similarities and underlying principles of the development of the child require that the child develop physically, develops emotionally, and develops socially based on the standard development requirements of the child and what constitutes quality.
It is worth noting that the physical development, as one of the underlying principles that define quality, should be safe and provide the required interest to children when engaged in their activities. In addition to that, some of the elements that define quality are the presence of adults. In an appropriate children’s development environment, it is worth commenting that the adult to children ratio strongly influence the quality children are exposed to when using any of the ECD methods mentioned above. Typically, each of the programs endeavors to provide an appropriate parent to children ratio and staff who provide consistent care for the children. In addition to that, both programs provide child care based on the principle of child parent ratio, while ensuring that both the parent and the staff appropriately model their behaviors while nurturing self-esteem and approach issues in a manageable way.
It is also clear from the findings that custodial programs provide support and care for children especially from poor families. Typically, that is historically based on legislation enacted during the 1960’s meant to fight poverty.
Conclusion
Findings from the study show a strong multidisciplinary element and implications of quality in the ultimate development of the child and the direct implications of quality in the development of the child in ECD programs in the United States. The quality implications on the development of the child translate to the development of the child in cognitive development, cultural association that draws from the anthropological theory, which heavily draws on cultural essentialism and cultural anxiety. It draws from the field of psychology that evaluates the development of the child from theoretical perspectives that converge on the underlying elements of development that draws directly on the approaches used to impart development of the child in the perspective of the quality associated with each approach. It is crucial to conclude at this point that the quality metrics against which any quality is evaluated include cognitive development that draws on cognitive theories of development of the child, social interactions based on social theories that include the Piaget’s social theory which affirms that development social and individual factors have a strong influence on the development of the child. Other quality metrics include development of social skills, development of cognitive skills, development of language and auditory skills, anthropometry, morbidity, mortality, physical development, and play observation skills. Typically, each of the preschool and custodial programs has their own quality implications on the development of the child. However, these approaches have a common denominator that includes the cognition and development, ability of the child to self-regulate oneself in different and unfolding environments and situations, ability to develop social skills that enable the child interact in a social setting with other people, develop the lexical competence of the language since language is a critical tool in communicating, develop appropriate early literacy skills, and develop the abilities to play and respond to underling motivations to initiate action and perform a task. On the other hand it is worth noting that readiness and play programs have significant similarities though they have differences that caused by the broad or narrow perspectives of either of the approaches. Typically, the approaches factor observable behavioral development, basic skills acquistion, physical well–being, motor development, and health development. The research shows that quality inculcated into the development of the child based on any program. Quality is in terms of the environment that provides good physical well-being that enables the child to move freely and enable the development of the child’s brain. In conclusion, therefore, both early childhood development methods have quality characteristics already mentioned as quality metrics that positively impact on the development of the child. However, it is recommended that further studies be conducted to develop an actual scale of development and relatively evaluate the programs against the developed scale to identify in detail their relative impact on a numerical scale on the development of the child in ECD programs.
Annotated Bibliography
Astington, J. W. The child’s discovery of the mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press: 1993
The author discusses issues related to socio-economic development and their direct impact on the development of the child. The author continues to evaluate how socio-economic issues relate to the development of the mind of the child, with the main objective being to identify the relationship between the cognition development as one method of early childhood development and as a measure of quality in the development of children. The paper discusses social cognition, and the development of the mind, the theory of the mind, and how both internal and external factors affect the development of the mind of the child. It endeavors to link the development of the child and how successful the child becomes in response to the both external and internal factors. It culminates the discussion with recommendations to policy makers, parents, teachers and other stakeholders involved in early childhood development to consider when deciding on the best method to use in implementing ECD programs.
Blau, D.M. The effects of child care characteristics on child development. Journal of Human Resources, 34, 786-822: 1999.
The paper focuses on the development of the child, and the determinants of quality in early childhood development. Quality in this case is discussed in the context of child to adult ratio, caregiver education, language and low staff turnovers, and behavioral problems. The author is an excellent source of information on how quality is affected by the above mentioned factors, the significant indicators of quality being the main objective of the paper, the relationship between quality and outcome on child development, and the historical perspective of quality. It is worth source for informing on how to measure the quality and its implications on the development of the child.
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. Chopsticks and counting chips: Do play and the foundational skills need to compete for the teachers’ attention in an early childhood classroom? Young Children, 58(3), 10–17: 2003.
This source demonstrates how readiness and play programs in schools are associated with the development of the child. It provides an in-depth discussion and clear definition of school readiness and play programs and the complex constructs associated with the programs in terms of education and development of the child and quality implications on the child. The focus is on the role play and readiness programs play in the cognition, language, social interactions, and other development on the child.
Bruner, J. Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J. Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognitive: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 21-34). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press: 1985
The author focuses on the historical perspectives of the development of the child, the decoding abilities of the child’s mind, and how the sight vocabulary of the student develops. It is an authority in the area of memory development and how children retain new words learnt during their education and development, the type of learners educators encounter, and the best approach to handle different cases. The source is strongly recommended for teachers and adults who develop and get involved in ECD programs. However, it is important to use the sources along with other sources.
Burchinal, M. R., Cryer, D., Clifford, R. M. & Howes, C. Caregiver training and classroom quality in child care centers. Applied Developmental Science, 6(1), 2-11: 2002
The above author provides a clear and sanguine approach used in providing care for children in preschool and custodial programs while ensuring the approach used imparts values in the earl education and development if the child. The paper explores the social aspect of early childhood development, how the child is integrated into the society which includes social groups and other forms of interactions. It is a qualitative source of knowledge for teachers and others involved in ECD programs in the USA to understanding the human aspects of the development of the child and how such values are integrated into the society.
Fabricius, William. Piaget’s Theory of Knowledge—Its Philosophical Context.” In The High/Scope Report: 1979, C. Silverman, ed., 4–13. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press
The above paper is the key to findings related to the theory of knowledge and its relationship with the early childhood development of the child. It discusses early childhood development and education and the need for human development as a prelude to the educational needs and metal faculty of the child. Active learning is considered the foundation of ECD programs as the child develops the constituency of the mind to actiley participate in their learning and development.
Fromberg, D. A review of research on play. In C. Seefeldt (Ed.), The early childhood curriculum: Current findings in theory and practice (3rd ed., pp. 27–53). New York: Teachers College Press: 1999
The above paper provides a detailed view and discussion on theory and practice on Garrison, J. Foucault Dewey and Self-Creation. Educational Philosophy and Theory. 30(2). 111-134: 1998
Kuper, A. Culture, the Anthropologists’ Account. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press: 1999
This paper is a theoretical discussion on anthropology and the relationship it has and its influence on the education and development of the child.
Lightfoot, C. The social construction of cognitive conflict: A place for affect. In J. Valsiner (Ed.), Children development within culturally structured environments, Vol. 2, Social co-construction and environmental guidance in development (pp. 28-65). Norwood, NJ: Ablex: 1988
The main focus of the paper is on social cognition and development of the mind of the child. It provides a detailed view on what is cognition and provides a guide for teachers and other stakeholders on the requirements necessary for the development of the child.
Oswald, Laura. Branding the American Family: A Strategic Study of the Culture, Composition, and Consumer Behavior of Families in the New Millennium. The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 37, No. 2: 2003.
Discusses the cultural nature of the American family and other details one might need on how culture affects the development of the child, the choice of school and program parents choose for their chikdren, and its influence on the performance of the child.
Parekh, B. Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory.Basingstoke: Macmillan: 2000.
Provides a detailed discussion on the effects of culture and its direct influence on the performance and interaction of the child with the external environment. The paper culminates with the findings on cultural diversities and their relationship wit the approach used to bring to children.
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