Summaries of the readings and relevant examples
In his article, Jean-Francois Lyotard examines the peculiarities of knowledge in the age of post-modernism. In particular, this author discusses the decline of the so-called grand narrative or a method of interpreting the experiences of individuals and groups. This argument is particularly relevant if one speaks about social sciences such as economics. There have been several grand narratives that have been used by explain various questions, for instance, one can mention such an ideology as Marxism which is now often criticized.
Moreover, the author speaks about Ludwig Wittgenstein’s theory according to which universal understanding is impossible because of linguistic differences. Overall, Lyotard’s idea of grand narrative can be illustrated if one looks at the way in which different historians try to discuss civil rights movement. Some of them try to focus on the efforts of political activists who wanted to bring social change. In turn, other researchers attach importance to the intentions of political leaders who did not want to face violent protests.
In turn, Arlene Stein and Ken Plummer discuss the peculiarities of the queer theory and the connections of this framework with post-modernism. These authors argue that the notion of sexuality is artificially constructed. The scholars refer to the ideas of Michel Foucault who believes that heterosexuality was merely imposed as a norm. It is possible to provide several examples which illustrate the validity of the queer theory. For instance, one can examine the way in which the very notion of homosexuality has evolved in the course of the twentieth century. Approximately, seventy years ago, it could be called a disease or a form of abnormality. However, nowadays, it is treated as one of the norms. This is one of the aspects that can be distinguished.
Finally, in his essay, Jeffrey Alexander focuses on various aspects of democratic communication. The author examines the complex discourse that regulates the functioning of a complex society. The scholar says that this discourse is supposed to explain how universal ideas be institutionalized. Moreover, Jeffrey Alexander examines the way in which Ludwig Wittgenstein’s theory can be applied to the functioning of civil society. In this case, one should speak about the rhetoric that has been developed during the age of Enlightenment.
Overall, it is possible to refer to such concepts as reason and right since they are often used by democratic leaders. The ideas expressed by the author are relevant to the functioning of the legal system. For instance, it is important to speak about various interpretations of the text of the U.S. Constitution or existing laws in order to protect the interests of various groups.
Connections between sources
Overall, there are several important connections between these sources. First of all, in each case, these authors pay attention to the methods of interpreting information. One of the ideas, which are present in each of these readings, is that the conceptions of truth can be artificially constructed. However, nowadays, these conceptions can be questioned. Furthermore, the authors pay attention to the role of language as a means of constructing knowledge. These are the main details that should be considered.
It is possible to discuss the controversy related to Rob Ford in order to apply the ideas from these three readings. The mayor of Toronto refused to put the Pride flag during the Olympic Games in Sochi. The representatives of the LGBT community believed that in this way Canadians could express their solidarity with gay people living in Russia. This situation can be explained with the help of Jean-Francois Lyotard’s grand narrative.
For instance, the opponents of Rob Ford may say that the promotion of civic and human rights throughout the world can be possible provided that people do not remain indifferent to the problems faced by other people. However, Rob Ford can offer a different interpretation according to which the mayor of Toronto should be concerned with the welfare of this particular city. However, this person does not need to concern oneself with international affairs.
In turn, one can also discuss this situation by using the arguments of Arlene Stein and Ken Plummer. The principles of queer theory imply there is a division between heterosexual and homosexual communities. The main issue is that the rights of the homosexual community are not always considered by policy-makers who do not want to associate themselves with a particular interest group. These are the main points that can be made.
Finally, it is possible to examine the peculiarities of the civil discourse to explain this conflict. The main issue is that there are several possible discourses that can be used. For example, mayor Rob Ford may say that there is no legal requirement according to which the Pride flag should be put up in support of the Russian LGBT community. In contrast, his opponents may say that the notion of a human right should be universally recognized. These are the main details that should be singled out.
Reference
Social Theory: The Multicultural, Global, and Classic Readings 5th edition by Lemert, Charles (2013).