Introduction
Translation can be defined as a process of decoding or converting texts written in one language into another while focusing on semantic characteristics of a source text which should be represented by means of the target language. The process of translating poetry is one of most challenging in the field of translation because poems usually contain aesthetic or metaphorical elements which should be appropriately converted into the target language (Dickins, Hervey, & Higgins, 2016).
Furthermore, a translator of poems often faces not only linguistic and aesthetic barriers but also semantic and socio-cultural ones while decoding cultural elements and representing them in the final text. The translation of Mahmoud Darwish’s “A Lesson from Kama Sutra” made by Fayeq Oweis is selected for the analysis in this research paper. Oweis is an American linguist and artist of the Arab origin (Profile of Fayeq Oweis, 2015).
The purpose of this paper is to examine specific linguistic issues related to the illocutionary level of language in the translation of “A Lesson from Kama Sutra” with the focus on analyzing register, genre, and alliteration in the context of the ideology, poetics, and discourse of the English language while referring to the target culture.
Register in the Poem
The term “register” can be defined as a combination of particular semantic models which are used in a certain context with the focus on specific words and constructions that are applied to represent these meanings (Dickins et al., 2016). Three important elements of register include field, tenor, and mode. Field is used to identify a thematic domain to which the discussed text belongs (Dickins et al., 2016).
The analysis of the field allows for answering the question about what takes place in the poem. Darwish’s “A Lesson from Kama Sutra” is focused on representing the physical nature of relationships between a man and a woman. Ghazoul (2013) notes that Darwish’s poem, “while it manifestly deals with an erotic encounter, turns what is physical into a delicate portrait of passion” (p. 256).
However, being aware of the fact that Darwish is inclined to add the ideological and social content to his poems (Eid, 2016), it is possible to note that “the beloved in the poem may be a desired woman, or a homeland to regain, or a dreamt-of Utopia” (Ghazoul, 2013, p. 257). However, while focusing on the translated version of the text, it is important to state that Oweis does not add any social element to this poem, and his message is rather clear.
Tenor accentuates participants in the linguistic situation and the relationships between them. It is important to note that, in both versions of the poem, the focus is on the poet as an author of the message and a reader for whom this message is expressed with the help of the repetitive “انتظرها،” (“wait for her”) (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013). As a result, the phrase “wait for her” is used as a leitmotif.
However, according to Ghazoul (2013), the provider of guidelines and their recipient are the same person: “this addressee is none other than the poetic persona, the speaker himself” (p. 257). Still, when Darwish uses the phrase as an imperative one, Oweis makes it open: “and wait for her…” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013). Oweis applies this approach to representing a leitmotif in order to accentuate his vision of the character’s interior monolog.
Mode as one more element of register demonstrates what media are used in a text in order to convey a message or represent an idea with the help of certain linguistic means (Dickins et al., 2016). In the discussed poem, the focus is on using the figurative language. Although the translation of metaphorical elements is one of the most challenging tasks in the process, Oweis does not change figurative elements used by Darwish in his poem. As a result, the ideology of the translator and the context in which he lives seem not to affect the translated version of the poem.
Accentuating the relationship between masculinity and femininity in the text, Oweis translates modes of expression used by Darwish directly, preserving the meaning. Thus, Darwish states in his poem: “بنار البَخُور النسائيِّ ملءَ المكانِ انتظرها،,” and Oweis translates: “With the fire of women incense filling the place, / Wait for her” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 23-28). Furthermore, Darwish says: “برائحة الصندل الذكرية حول ظهور الخيول انتظرها،,” and Oweis translates: “With the scent of a male sandals on horseback, / Wait for her” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 29-34).
Thus, the translator does not allow his culture to influence his interpretation of Darwish’s vision of masculine-feminine relationships through a combination of scents. However, there are also lines where Oweis’s cultural interpretation of the text influenced his translation. Thus, the first line in Darwish’s poem states, “بكأس الشراب المرصَّع باللازوردِ” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 1). However, in his translation, Oweis does not represent the culturally important idea of using azure and provides a general phrase: “With a glass inlaid with gemstones” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 3). Still, referring to the mode of the poem, Oweis follows the pattern applied by the author.
Genre of the Poem
Genre can be defined as a category according to which all texts are classified due to certain stylistic features they have. The genre of Darwish’s poem can be viewed as erotic poetry. In his poem, Darwish accentuates sensuality and “the aesthetics and poetics of lovemaking” (Ghazoul, 2013, p. 256). The important feature of Darwish’s text which can be viewed as a challenge for the translator is the use of imagery and the reference to myths and legends. Ghazoul (2013) explains these aspects of the erotic poetry stating that, “in the ghazal tradition of lyrics, erotic love and devotional mysticism intersect” (p. 257).
Much attention is paid to representing the mythic garden with “the perfumed roses” and “a moon soaked in milk” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 15-17). One more metaphor that can be discussed in the context of the sexual imagery is presented in the final lines of the poem to accentuate a climax of physical love: “Take her gently, to the death you desire” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 54). All these elements are translated by Oweis without changing their meaning because of the translator’s culture or his vision of the discourse. All features of the genre seem to be preserved in the translated version of the poem.
Alliteration
Alliteration is a literary device used in poetry to accentuate certain parts of the text and create a rhyme and a rhythm. Thus, alliteration is a repetition of the same consonants when they are observed in initial positions in words (Dickins et al., 2016). In the Arabic poetry, alliteration is also used to contribute to the meaning of the phrase and its rhyme as in any other language. However, the problem is that the effects produced with the help by alliterations can be lost as a result of translation. This sound symbolism is important to be preserved in the text of a poem, still, translators need to focus not only on reproducing specific phonic effects but also on accentuating the meaning of the phrase.
In Darwish’s “A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” alliteration can be observed in phrases which are repeated in the poem because of particular features of the Arabic grammar constructions and because of the semantic pattern used by the author. Thus, alliteration in the repeated words can be observed in the following phrase: “غيمةً غيمةً” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 20). While translating the text into English, Oweis compensates this alliteration using grammatically and semantically correct structures to reproduce the meaning of the phrase without losing its effect: “to lift her dress from her leg cloud by cloud…” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 21).
The same approach is used in order to translate the following phrase from Arabic into English: “خاتماً خاتماً” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 28). Oweis writes the following line to represent the expected phonic effect and preserve the meaning of the phrase: “ring by ring, shine the night for her, and wait for her…” (“A Lesson from Kama Sutra,” 2013, para. 29). Oweis does not change the semantic model to reproduce these phrases, but, as a translator, he adapts the phrases to the poetics and grammar typical of the English language.
Conclusion
After comparing the source and target texts in terms of such aspects as register, genre, and alliteration, it is possible to state that Oweis’s translation of Darwish’s “A Lesson from Kama Sutra” is successful. The reason is that the translator paid much attention to preserving meanings of metaphors and linguistic aspects of the text without changing it to adapt to the Western context. The only example of adaptation provided in the text is the translator’s interpretation of the first line, but other lines of the poem are translated in accordance with the author’s idea.
References
A Lesson from Kama Sutra. (2013). Web.
Dickins, J., Hervey, S., & Higgins, I. (2016). Thinking Arabic translation: A course in translation method: Arabic to English (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
Eid, M. A. (2016). Mahmoud Darwish: Literature and the politics of Palestinian identity. New York, NY: I.B.Tauris.
Ghazoul, F. (2013). Lesson from the Kama Sutra. In V. Arana (Ed.), The facts on file companion to world poetry: 1900 to the present (pp. 256-257). New York, NY: Infobase Publishing.
Profile of Fayeq Oweis. (2015). Web.