Introduction
In contemporary democracies, public administration remains an indispensable tool of good governance. It determines the policies and programs that governments implement to serve the needs of their people. The modern political systems are largely bureaucratic, where civil servants act as public administrators (Peters, 2021). Public administration in countries worldwide has continually evolved due to fluctuations in social and economic conditions. In most cases, efficiency and effectiveness are the central principles of public administration, which require that public services be provided at a minimum cost (Norman-Major, 2021). President Harry S. Truman and President Dwight David Eisenhower’s domestic and foreign policies played a critical role in shaping the social, economic, and political aspects of the United States to date.
Truman’s Administration
Truman served as the 33rd president of the United States. Truman was born on 8th May 1884 and passed on 26th December 1972 (Elston, 2020). His administration began in 1945 and ended in 1953 and is renowned for the Truman Doctrine (Elston, 2020). Under this doctrine, Truman declared that the United States would offer economic, political, and military assistance to all democratic countries threatened by internal or external authoritarian powers (“Truman – Foreign policies,” 2022). This was in line with the containment foreign policy developed to stop the spread of the Soviet Union’s communism. The Truman Doctrine significantly restructured the United States’ foreign policy from its usual position of non-interference in regional conflicts, becoming the foundation of the country’s international policies to date.
Eisenhower’s Administration
Eisenhower, nicknamed Ike, was the 34th president of the United States. He was born on 14 October 1890 and passed away on 28 March 1969 (Panton, 2022). Eisenhower’s administration started in 1953 and ended in 1961 (Panton, 2022). His government is remembered for its New Look policy and the Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957. The New Look approach changed the country’s military strategy by focusing on using airpower and nuclear bombs in its Cold War defense policies (Pach, 2022). Alternatively, the Eisenhower Doctrine established that other countries, particularly the Middle East, could request military or economic assistance if threatened by aggressive forces or enemy nations (“The Eisenhower Doctrine,” n.d.). This doctrine was a continuation of the containment policy initiated by Truman’s administration.
Differences Between Truman’s and Eisenhower’s Foreign Policies
Although both Eisenhower’s and Truman’s administrations sought to fight communism, their approach to foreign policies was very distinct. Truman’s government reversed the long-standing American position on international affairs from abstention to participation (“Truman – Foreign policies,” 2022). This led to the Truman Doctrine, which initiated the country’s support for other nations threatened by communism, including Greece and Turkey (“Truman – Foreign policies,” 2022). In addition, Truman’s administration implemented the Marshall Plan, which offered economic assistance to many countries in Western Europe, including France, Austria, and Belgium (“Truman – Foreign policies,” 2022). Alternatively, Eisenhower’s foreign policy involved major cuts in military support to other countries (Pach, 2022). Therefore, Eisenhower’s government focused more on domestic issues, while Truman’s administration concentrated more on international policies.
Eisenhower’s military strategy greatly differed from the one implemented by Truman. During Truman’s tenure, his administration was more invested in increasing its conventional forces (army and navy) to protect its allies from communism. His rigorous approach to military force aided in the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949 (“Truman – Foreign policies,” 2022). This alliance was aimed at protecting the Western nations against communism. On the other hand, Eisenhower’s New Look policy focused more on strategic airpower, increasing spending on air force rather than conventional forces (Pach, 2022). This change in defense tactics was motivated by the need to lower military costs. Therefore, Truman’s defense depended on conventional forces, while Eisenhower focused on the air force.
Another difference between Eisenhower’s and Truman’s foreign defense policy was the objective of military involvement. The Truman administration’s military strategy aimed at containing communism. The government intended to prevent communism from spreading further and not eliminate it. Consequently, military engagement was implemented so that it did not trigger a war with other nations. For instance, during the Korean War, Truman’s administration kept it limited to avoid triggering a bigger conflict with China or Russia (“Truman – Foreign policies,” 2022). Alternatively, Eisenhower’s defense foreign policy engaged in massive retaliation to eradicate communism (“Foreign policy under Eisenhower,” n.d.). The use of nuclear bombs in the fight against communism served as a deterrence for other nations not to engage in battle with the United States.
Eisenhower’s foreign defense policy was more aggressive than Truman’s strategy. Truman’s approach mainly involved providing military and economic support to countries threatened by Soviet communism, such as Greece and Turkey (“Truman – Foreign policies,” 2022). Nevertheless, Eisenhower’s foreign defense strategy was considered aggressive; the administration also used the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to engage in covert operations against leaders or governments involved in expanding Soviet control (Pach, 2022). Eisenhower’s administration also strengthened alliances with non-aligned governments to counter the influence of the Soviet Union and its allies. These alliances were the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) (Foreign Policy Eisenhower,” n.d.). Thus, the consolidated and massive retaliation effectively kept the Soviets in check.
Civil Rights Movement
The civil rights movement involved efforts by African Americans to attain equal rights under United States law. This struggle began in the mid-1950s and ended in 1968; it was triggered by increased cases of discrimination against black people (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). Although the Civil War abolished slavery, black people continued suffering the devastating impacts of racism. The strategies involved during the civil rights movements included protests, marches, freedom rides, rallies, and boycotts (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). The movement culminated with the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended racial discrimination in voting, employment, and public facilities (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). Thus, black people could get equal job opportunities and have the freedom to rent or own houses like their White counterparts.
Legal Origins of the Civil Rights Struggles
A myriad of events triggered the civil rights movement; several legislative changes may have prompted the African Americans’ struggle for social justice. Despite the 14th Amendment granting black people equal protection under the law, they continually experienced increased racial discrimination (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). This was particularly after the enactment of Jim Crow laws in the South in the 1880s, which allowed racial segregation (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). As a result, African Americans could not live in the same neighborhood or attend the same schools as their White counterparts. Additionally, they could not use the same public amenities as their White peers. Even in the northern states, the black community experienced discrimination at their jobs, schools, and when renting or buying houses.
The segregation laws greatly prompted the African-American struggle for social justice. Apart from the Jim Crow laws, the Supreme Court verdict in the Plessy v. Ferguson case further promoted segregation (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). The court ruled that amenities for White and black people could be separate though equal; this fueled increased racism, particularly in the southern states. However, some legislative changes motivated the black community to continue fighting for their rights. In this case, the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling that classified segregation as unlawful in public schools inspired hope for black people to fight for their rights(“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). Thus, while some legislation oppressed African Americans, others motivated them to fight for equality.
Political Origins of the Civil Rights Struggles
Various political factors may have sparked the start of the civil rights movement. Although the 15th Amendment allowed African American men to vote, most could not vote since they could not pass voter literacy tests (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). This implies that the black community was largely unrepresented due to their inability to vote. In addition, following the enactment of the Jim Crow laws, some states passed laws to restrict black people’s freedom to vote (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). The need for African Americans to exercise their freedom to vote for leaders who would positively change their social welfare may have motivated them to begin the civil rights movement. Therefore, the quest for voting rights was a major trigger for the fight for social justice.
The actions of some political leaders may have promoted the grassroots activism of the civil rights struggle. For instance, President Franklin D Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802 in 1941, allowing people to apply for defense or government jobs regardless of race or ethnicity (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). The order allowed African-American men and women to serve in the Second World War(“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). In addition, President Truman started the civil rights agenda by issuing Executive Orders 9980 and 9981, which ended segregation in the federal workforce and the military (Orr, 2018). These orders provided great milestones for African Americans in their quest for social justice. Therefore, incentives by political leaders greatly catalyzed the grassroots initiatives that incited the civil rights movement.
The formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) may have prompted the civil rights struggle. NAACP was an interracial group established in 1909 to fight for the equal rights of the black community (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 2022). The organization fought to outlaw job discrimination in government agencies during President Roosevelt’s tenure. Hence, the NAACP was pivotal in fighting for legislative changes that favored African Americans. Rosa Parks’ arrest (a member of the NAACP) sparked massive protests among African Americans, resulting in the Montgomery bus boycott, which ignited the start of the civil rights movement (“Civil Rights Movement,” 2022). Hence, the NAACP acted as a political tool to champion legislative changes to ensure equal rights for black people.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Truman’s and Eisenhower’s administrations played a critical role in shaping the United States’ domestic and foreign policies. These leaders advanced the African-American civil rights agenda during their tenure. They were also instrumental in fighting against the spread of communism by providing military and economic aid to other countries. Nevertheless, there were major differences between Truman’s and Eisenhower’s foreign policies. While Truman expanded the conventional forces to counter communism, Eisenhower relied on the air force and nuclear bombs to stop the Soviet’s influence. In addition, Truman’s administration strived to contain communism, while Eisenhower’s government launched a massive retaliation strategy coupled with covert operations to eliminate the threat of communism. Thus, a government’s policies depend on the changes in social and economic conditions.
References
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