Introduction
The history of Turkey and Greece relationships is long and filled with the mutual wariness combined with occasional increases in tensions. Following the downfall of the Ottoman Empire, the political landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean region has undergone major transformations. However, this part of Europe continued to demonstrate sporadic surges in hostility. Thus, the relationship between Turkey and Greece, which holds the Ottoman Empire’s heritage, have served as an area of intense interest for political experts and researchers across the globe. The geostrategic importance of the region for both Western and Eastern powers, combined with the general uncertainty surrounding the region, contributes to the topical nature of the discussion.
From a historical perspective, Greek-Turkish relations have seen periods of improvement, as well as intermittent phases of conflict. The latter included overt military operations that eventually culminated in the division of Cyprus in the 1970s. The positivity in the bipartite connections was mainly observed in the first decades after the breakdown of the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, the Turkish administration made considerable steps toward the normalization of the atmosphere between its s country and Greece. The 1930s became the most important period within this context due to the mutual efforts of leaders from both sides. Nevertheless, as the result of World War II, tensions arose, and the prior convergence of the countries’ interests became replaced by mutual distrust. Cyprus is often associated with the primary causes of disagreements between these Mediterranean nations. Consequently, the island became the center of military tensions in the second half of the 20th century, which explains the interest in its role within the framework of the current discussion.
This paper explores the historical context of the relations between Greece and Turkey after the Ottoman era. Even though this period encompasses one century, it demonstrates an array of points of interest. Over a relatively short timeframe on the scale of global history, these bilateral relations went to both extremes between friendship and conflict. The countries made honest attempts at normalizing the situation, but the subsequent events prompted a different outcome. As the 21st century approached, both nations joined the same military alliance. This step had the potential to mitigate the tensions, but the uncertainty persisted. As a matter of fact, uncertainty appears to be a fitting denomination for the context of the relations between Turkey and Greece throughout the past hundred years. Accordingly, further historical research is required to enable a better understanding of the historical perspective that entailed the present state of the situation.
Methodology
In order to cover such a controversial topic related to recent history, the current paper relies on an in-depth analysis of the literature. The Turkish-Greek relationships in the 20th and the 21st century became a matter of considerable importance for the global society. Accordingly, there exists a substantial body of knowledge that explores and analyzes the situation from both perspectives. Considering the recency of the discussed events, it appears relevant to include a range of primary sources in the discussion. These materials provide a contemporary view of the key events that form the history of Greek-Turkish relations. In addition, the paper incorporates the findings obtained from secondary sources, containing valuable opinions of expert political researchers and historians. Overall, the methodology of the study can be described as a systematic review comprising a comprehensive review of relevant literature and primary sources. The findings are synthesized in accordance with the corresponding historical period of Greek-Turkish relations and presented in the subsequent sections.
Discussion
The 1920s and 1930s: the Initial Normalization of the Relations
The first quarter of the 20th century marked the end of several world empires, and the Ottoman nation was one of them. After World War I, the Mediterranean and the Balkans experienced another surge of violence. More specifically, as the Ottoman Empire was crumbling, thousands of Armenian and Greek Christians were slaughtered amid the revolutionary campaign by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Corbic 170). From the Turkish perspective, the genocide was considered to be a fitting response to the mass killings of Muslims committed by the Greek side earlier. However, by 1923, the geopolitical landscape of the region changed to a considerable degree. The multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire collapsed, and the independent Republic of Turkey emerged led by general Atatürk. During the same year, Turkey and Greece instigated a massive population exchange, during which over one million Christians and 380,000 Muslims returned to their respective states (M. Y. Metintaş and M. Metintaş 75). This point marked a new age of reconciliation between the two rival nations of the Eastern Mediterranean.
The downfall of the Ottoman Empire combined with peace-related policies from both sides made a positive contribution to region’s consistency. The peace treaty signed in 1923 in Lausanne restricted the expansion ambitions of the countries but opened new avenues for co-existence and cooperation. In 1930, the Ankara Convention was held, which led to the historical visit of the Greek Prime Minister to Turkey (Corbic 170). This period of reconciliation is associated with the names of Eleftherios Venizelos Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Both leaders made significant attempts to establish trust between their nations. In fact, the former played a key role in the latter’s nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize (Corbic 171). The alliance was further strengthened by a series of international agreements. Among them, the 1934 Balkans Pact, signed by Greece, Turkey, Yugoslavia, and Romania, became the most important step to stability. This document revoked the territorial claims of the nations and guaranteed the preservation of existing borders. Overall, the 1930s became one the most positive decades in the long history of tensions between Turkey and Greece.
Turkey and Greece in World War II
Following the initial normalization of the bilateral relations, the two nations entered a new phase of negativity amid World War II. This period remains one of the darkest pages of global history, during which multiple conflicts emerged around the main battle against Nazis. As the global war erupted, Turkey opted for a neutral position. Nevertheless, the country still signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with Nazi Germany as a means of protecting itself against a possible attack (Corbic 171). According to the contemporary British press, the pact ensured a favorable position for Turkey, as it still had an “escape clause under which Turkey continues to abide by her obligations under the Anglo-Turkish alliance” (Nazi-Turkish Pact Reported Ready to Sign). Under the new circumstances, the Turkish government felt comfortable enough to begin the oppression of its non-Muslim population. Residents of Greek origin were among those who became subject to elevated taxes and compulsory conscription for labor battalions (Corbic 171). These measures inflicted serious damage on the Greek communities in Turkey, causing a strain in the bilateral relations.
A New Phase of Bilateral Tensions
World War II became a challenge of unprecedented magnitude on the global level, and the complicated geopolitical landscape translated into a new phase of tension in Greek-Turkish relations. The policy of non-Muslim oppression in Istanbul persisted through most parts of the war, and the restrictions were only lifted in 1944 (Corbic 171). In the 1950s, the nations made another attempt at improving their relations. However, this time the reconciliation was mainly determined by the emergence of a new geopolitical threat. According to Corbic, a new Balkan Pact of 1953 united Turkey, Greece, and Yugoslavia against the expansion ambition of the Soviet Union (171). Therefore, the risks of the Cold War became the only common ground for the countries. Simultaneously, the West decided to incorporate the Balkan region into its defense framework against the U.S.S.R, making Turkey and Greece NATO member states in 1952 (Naumescu 188). These facts suggest that the presence of a common threat outweighed the existing disputes between the countries.
Evidently, the 1950s rapprochement of Turkey and Greece did not have a solid foundation. The legacy of the 1930s policies could hardly survive the War and corresponding issues. The formation of a common defense framework was executed under the command of the West, but, on a local level, a new cause of tensions emerged. In 1950, the problematic question of Cyprus arose for the first time in the 20th century (Corbic 171). At that time, the island’s government held an enosis – an official referendum regarding Cyprus’s potential union with Greece. According to the original historical documents, the turnover amounted to over 220,000, and 95% of voters supported the enosis idea (Zypern, 22). Turkey responded aggressively, seeing enosis as a threat to its interest in the Mediterranean. Simultaneously, rumors were spread regarding Greek’s plans to oppress Turkish residents of Cyprus. Following the bombing of Atatürk’s house in Thessaloniki by the Turkish forces, anti-Greek riots erupted in Istanbul (Corbic 171). The clashes resulted in multiple casualties and serious property damage, which led to the Greek exodus from Turkey. Ultimately, the Cyprus question launched a new stage of confrontation.
The 1970s and the Division of Cyprus
The period after the 1970s is characterized by the most substantial conflict in the Turkish-Greek relationship since the downfall of the Ottoman Empire. As established previously, Cyprus became the central element of the confrontation, as the island’s population voiced the desire to join Greece. The proposed political resolution of the crisis implied joint Turko-Greek governing of independent Cyprus. However, Greek authorities objected to the 70/30 distribution of power, as it did not reflect the demography of the former British colony (Corbic 172). As a result, all negations failed, and the conflict entered a new phase. Following a coup d’état in Greece, Turkish armed forces began the bombings of Cyprus in 1974 to impede the projected union. The internal issues prevented Greece from reacting in a timely manner, and Turkey managed to occupy one-third of the island. Consequently, Cyprus became divided into two major territories: The Republic of Cyprus and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (Corbic 172). This conflict had an immense impact and determined the subsequent course of joint relationships between two examined countries.
Relations between Turkey and Greece until Present-Day
The annexation of a considerable part of Cyprus had serious implications on the geopolitical landscape of the area. In the 1980s, the United States Congress expressed the position of the West by condemning the Turkish occupation of Northern Cyprus (U.S. Congress). This development made Turkey’s membership negotiations with the European Union highly complicated. Due to the territorial disputes, Greek governments did everything possible to prevent Turkey from joining the organization.
Furthermore, in the fallout of the Cyprus conflict, new territorial disputes followed. More specifically, several parts of the Aegean Sea became the cause of heated disputes between the two countries. Greece aimed to extend its territorial waters in order to enable the extraction of oil while promoting national security. Naturally, the Turkish side saw such plans as a threat to its own interest, actively resisting the envisaged expansion. The 1970s saw several skirmishes between the navies that resulted in casualties from both sides. However, the sides still managed to avoid open military engagement, resolving the shelf disputes through negotiations. In this scenario, the countries’ membership status in NATO may have become the key factor that prevented a local war from starting.
Remaining under serious geopolitical pressure, Greece and Turkey had to acknowledge the necessity of relationship normalization. In the post-Cold War era, both governments have been attempting to introduce positive initiatives that, however, did not eliminate the repercussions of past disputes. In 1999, significant progress was made as Greece changed its position in regards to Turkey’s membership in the EU (Dokos et al. 2). This point marked a new period of normalization under the flag of Europe and NATO.
However, the existing crises appear to not have received a proper resolution, as the tensions continue to resurface in the 21st century. Europe’s leading political experts relate modern issues to the surge in nationalist and revisionist rhetoric in Turkey associated with Tayyip Recep Erdogan’s coming to power (Christofis et al. 67). Dokos et al. state that Erdogan’s government has taken an aggressive stance that aims to reinforce the national awareness of the Turkish people (3). Such ideas rely on the unresolved crises of the past, and the disputes around the Aegean Sea are a prominent example of such issues. Simultaneously, as long as Cyprus stands divided, the Greek side cannot fully reconcile with its counterpart. Amid these concerning tendencies stemming from the occasional re-emergence of past disputes, the expert community actively discusses a possibility of war between Turkey and Greece. Such a possibility is alarming, as an open military conflict between two NATO member states has the potential to undermine the global security framework in its entirety.
Conclusion
Ultimately, the post-Ottoman period of Turkish-Greek relationships can be identified as generally uncertain. In the first decades after the formation of the Turkish Republic, both sides demonstrated their readiness to overcome past crises. As such, the Lausanne treaty was a serious step toward normalization. However, the turmoil of World War II prompted further complications within the framework of bilateral relations. In the post-war era, the Cyprus issue emerged as the cornerstone of all disputes between the nations. While Turkey and Greece have been a part of a common security framework, their local disagreements never faded. Despite the efforts of the governments, such issues as the division of Cyprus and territorial claims over the Aegean Sea continue to define the bilateral relations in the 21st century. The prevailing role of imperial revisionism in present-day Turkey aggravates the problems that did not receive satisfying closure for either side. Overall, effective political resolutions are to be provided to avert further conflict growth that would compromise the stability in a globalized world.
References
Christofis, Nikos et al. “The View from Next Door: Greek-Turkish Relations after the Coup Attempt in Turkey.” The International Spectator, vol. 54, no. 2, 2019, pp. 67-86.
Corbic, Dusan. “An Overview of Greek-Turkish Relations in the 20th Century.” VI International Scientific Conference Safety and Crisis Management – Theory and Practise Safety for the Future – Secman 2020, 2020, pp. 169-174.
Dokos, Thanos et al. Greek-Turkish Relations and the Cyprus Dispute: Impact on Turkey-EU Scenarios. FEUTURE, 2018. Web.
Metintaş, Mustafa Yahya and Melike Metintaş. “Analysis of Turkish-Greek Population Exchange in the Context of Greek and Turkish Foreign Policy.” Türk Dünyası Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi Yakın Tarih Dergisi, vol. 2, no. 4, 2018, pp. 73-88.
Naumescu, Valentin. “Stability, Ambiguity and Change in the Discourses of NATO allies in the Black Sea region: The Cases of Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey.” Croatian International Relations Review, vol. 23, no. 80, 2017, pp. 187-209.
“Nazi-Turkish Pact Reported Ready to Sign.”Middlesboro Daily News, 1941. Web.
United States of America, Congress. Condemnation of the “Turkish Federated State of Cyprus”, H. Con. Res. 220. The House of Representatives, 1984.