Adult Development
Early Adulthood
Development of Young Adults
It is possible to view developmental changes people undergo in early, middle, and late adulthood in terms of different theoretical paradigms. Some of these paradigms are concerned with the way individuals find their place in society. As regards young adults, Perry outlines positions within such domains as dualism (focus on authority) and multiplicity (independent thinking) (Love & Guthrie, 2011). It is necessary to note that dualism is associated with the earlier stages of development, but people transit to the next level at different ages. Some individuals may enter the stage of individual thinking in their late 20s. During the stage of dualism, people tend to focus on authority and take other people’s opinions without questioning them. The next stage, which is usually associated with young adulthood, multiplicity is the period when authority is questioned. People develop ideas that may contradict the accepted norms. People take the responsibility to make their own decisions.
Perry’s theory is quite similar to Scharie’s approach as the latter also ties people’s development with the degree of responsibility. According to this theory, there are several stages including the achieving stage (young adults) as well as executive and responsible stages (people aged between 30 and 60) (Peterson, 2013). The difference between the two frameworks is apparent as Perry stresses that the stages are static, but the changes take place during the transition period. Whereas, Scharie believes that the changes take place gradually during the stages (Peterson, 2013). Both theories can be applied in psychological practice as clients often have difficulties when passing to another stage. Young adults may have difficulties when making decisions. The practitioner should help the client to adopt different ways to take up responsibilities. This can be associated with career choice as well as further career development.
Environmental Factors
It has been acknowledged that external factors affect people’s behavior and the choices they make. Holland’s theory of personality and Sternberg’s triangular theory of love try to explain the impact of these factors. These theories are best applied to early adulthood when intimacy patterns are mainly developed, and careers are chosen. Thus, Sternberg (1986) stresses that a combination of three components is essential for the development of true love. The three components include intimacy, passion, and commitment. Importantly, true love and lasting relationship occur if the three components are present. Holland states that people pertain to different personality types that shape their decisions related to their job choices (Nauta, 2010). These types include realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.
As for the similarities between the two paradigms, both theorists claim that gender plays a significant role in the process of personality development, especially during the young adulthood stage. Thus, as for the development of intimacy and love, women emphasize “intimacy and social penetration more” than men do (Sternberg, 1986, p. 134). Holland also states that women are more subjected to the influence of societal norms and regulations, which affects their decisions concerning their career path (Reardon & Bullock, 2004). Holland’s theory may be instrumental in helping people to make their career choices. Whereas, Sternberg’s paradigm can help in treating couples that have difficulties in their family life. The development of consummate love can help them solve their issues. The development of proper relationships with family members as well as other people can also be more effective when the client receives professional counseling.
Middle Adulthood
Life Satisfaction
According to a recent survey, Generation X (people in their early and middle adulthood) are happy and satisfied with their life (Miller, 2011). They develop relationships with different people and have family bonds. Representatives of this generation have careers and hobbies that make their lives more complete. These adults also have effective coping strategies to address stress. However, even these happy people may have difficulty with addressing various stressful situations, but this does not affect their overall life satisfaction.
It is possible to apply Erickson’s theory to understand what defines life satisfaction. The theorist claims that people in their middle adulthood try to create things that will outlast them. First, having children is one of the common ways to make a considerable contribution to the development of human society as seen by people. Apart from children rearing, this often refers to contributing to the community. It can be manifested in charity, social activism, and so on. People’s need to create some lasting impact is called (Cheng, 2009). People become satisfied with their life if they feel they accomplished something relevant and lasting. They need to feel that they created something worth living.
On the contrary, stagnation refers to people’s inability to create something that could outlast them. Stagnation leads to individuals’ dissatisfaction and the corresponding emotional state. They feel that they have not accomplished anything meaningful and out of time to do so. This makes them feel incomplete and dissatisfied. It is often important to help people understand that there is still time to accomplish something relevant.
Late Adulthood
Healthy Aging
Aging populations can be regarded as a characteristic feature of modern society, especially when it comes to developed countries. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how people can be satisfied during late adulthood. Wisdom plays an important role in healthy aging. Erickson uses the concept of integrity to address this point (Peterson, 2013). The researcher states that older adults need to “attach meaning, coherence and significance to their own lives” (Peterson, 2013, p. 576).
Those who manage this become satisfied with their lives. This can also be referred to as wisdom. Elderly people understand who they are and accept their true identities. People who fail to achieve integrity (in other words, wisdom) feel despair and cannot conciliate with themselves. In such cases, healthy aging does not occur, and individuals may need professional help to be able to understand their selves and come to terms with themselves.
Biological Aging Theories
There are different theories of biological aging. Wear and tear is one of the approaches used in many spheres (Peterson, 2013). According to this framework, people’s bodies are subjected to deterioration as any other objects on the planet. Dr. Weisman introduced the theory that is still applied (Jin, 2010). In terms of this theory, people’s physical and mental states worsen over time as a result of the laws of nature. Their emotional and psychological well-being also deteriorates as people understand that they cannot function as they used to. Another theory concerning biological aging is the programmed theory (Goldsmith, 2013). It can be divided into three major subgroups that include programmed longevity, endocrine theory, and immunological theory (Jin, 2010). Thus, some theorists argue that cells are programmed to deteriorate at certain points of people’s lives which manifests in aging (Jin, 2010). According to the endocrine theory, hormones affect the work of people’s biological clock and regulate the speed of aging. Finally, the immunological theory is based on the assumption that the human immune system is programmed to deteriorate over time. Recent research unveils other options to address aging as the processes can occur in molecules rather than genes (Hayflick, 2007). Notably, researchers agree that different people’s organisms have different programs and aging is quite specific for every individual.
Common Illnesses
It is possible to identify several natural causes of death. These illnesses affect the physical state, mental state, or both. Cancer is a widespread illness that was associated with aging. Now, people of all ages can be affected, but the elderly are at a higher risk of developing this chronic disorder. It affects the physical state of the individual causing a lot of pain, which negatively affects the psychological and emotional well-being of the aging person (Noncommunicable diseases among older adults, 2012). This disorder is associated with depression, anxiety, and similar psychological states. Alzheimer’s disorder is associated with deterioration of the immune system (Boyette & Tuan, 2014). This disease affects the mental state of the individual. It is also called dementia. Cardiovascular diseases are also typical of aging people. This disorder is associated with the wear and tear theoretical framework. Aging is manifested in the deterioration of organs and systems. Various inflammations are also related to aging. Researchers who adopt programmed immune system note that this system starts failing, which leads to various inflammation processes.
Reflective Assessment
Prenatal Development
Psychological theories provide practitioners with approaches that can be applied when treating particular issues. In other words, the theory can be regarded as a pathway for a practitioner. There are many theoretical frameworks, but it is possible to consider the most common approaches for each developmental stage.
When it comes to prenatal developmental theories, it is possible to consider the prenatal attachment theory (Doan & Zimerman, 2008). According to this paradigm, the attachment between the mother and the child develops during the prenatal development of the child (Doan & Zimerman, 2008). The degree of attachment can be different. Recent research shows that female attachment to her child depends on such variables as empathy and “the cognitive ability to mentally represent the fetus” (Doan & Zimerman, 2008, p. 20).
This knowledge can help practitioners to assist pregnant clients who often feel distressed. Some women do not feel the attachment and worry about that. The practitioner may try to help the woman to develop the mental representation of the fetus. Of course, reading educational books and watching films on the matter will help the woman to develop empathy. The practitioner has to provide the pregnant with a list of helpful materials. The practitioner can also help the woman develop various strategies to develop empathy.
Early Childhood
One of the important theories addressing early childhood development is attachment theory. John Bowlby claims that “experience with primary caregivers leads to generalized expectations and beliefs… about self, the world, and relationships” (Malekpour, 2007, p. 82). These beliefs have a particular impact on the way the individual develops relationships in his/her further life.
The researcher identifies the following patterns of attachment: secure and insecure attachment. The latter includes such patterns as the avoidant attachment, resistant, and disoriented attachment. The secure attachment pattern is the child’s need to be with the nurturer, and when the latter is absent, the child is distressed. Notably, the more the child is attached in infancy, the faster he/she will become independent during the following stages (Malekpour, 2007). The avoidant pattern develops when parents do not express affection or empathy, and it is manifested in the child’s avoidance of contact with the caregivers. If the care was provided sporadically, the infant may develop the resistant pattern and will reveal distress and resist any contact with the caregiver. The disoriented pattern develops when the caregiver abuses the infant, and the child may display contradictory behaviors.
The practitioner should apply this theory when working with families with little children. It is vital to make the parents understand that the most important cognitive processes occur during the first years of life. This period defines a person’s future life.
Middle Childhood
One of the theories that can be applied when considering the development of children in their middle childhood is Vygotsky’s leading activity theory. The theory is based on the assumption that children learn about the world and the society during routine activities such as reading a book with a parent, going to church, participating in sports games at school, and so on (Fuller & Coll, 2010).
At the same time, recent research provides insights into multiple contexts modern children are exposed to. Specific attention is paid to cultural differences. It has been acknowledged that children of different cultures do not benefit from engaging in activities that are seen as effective in certain contexts. Thus, Latino children often feel distressed due to the educators’ focus on leading activities that are seen as efficient and beneficial. The practitioner should understand the shifts in modern globalized society. When working with families, it is essential to make sure that the activities offered will be consistent with the culture the family pertains to.
Adolescence
Erickson’s theory of development is one of the most influential theoretical paradigms. His theory of identity mainly applies to the stage of adolescence (Sokol, 2009). This is the period when the person understands his/her self. Importantly, the theorist defines identity as “a sense of who one if as a person and as a contributor to society” (Sokol, 2009, p. 142). The understanding of oneself shapes the further development of the individual. Therefore, it is an important developmental stage.
However, recent research implies that the formation of the identity may occur during later stages (Sokol, 2009). Practitioners tend to apply Erickson’s theory of identity when working with adolescents. It is essential to make sure the client develops his/her identity and will be able to pass to another development stage. Nonetheless, the practitioner should understand that transition may not occur during adolescence and should be ready to help some clients seek their identities later in their lives.
Early Adulthood
Holland’s theory of personality is one of the most relevant when dealing with people in their early adulthood. Holland identified six personality types. People who pertain to the realistic personality type are likely to choose working outdoors with machines and tools (Reardon & Bullock, 2004). The investigative type includes people who like solving problems and being alone. Artistic people are creative and independent. People about social type like working with and helping people. Enterprising type includes people who like leadership, working in business, and politics. People comprising conventional types like organizing things and working indoors.
The practitioner can use this theoretical framework when helping people to choose their career or their life pathway. The framework includes descriptions of people’s personalities and the most appropriate career opportunities. The practitioner can analyze the client’s aspirations, qualities, and expectations to identify the most appropriate sphere for him/her.
Middle Adulthood
Middle adulthood is a complex period when people often face many challenges that cause depression and anxiety. Many people are dissatisfied with their lives, and this affects their physical, mental, and emotional wellbeing. Their families are also affected. Therefore, Erickson’s theory of development is instrumental when addressing this issue. According to Erickson’s model, people in their middle adulthood long for creating something meaningful (Cheng, 2009). They want to contribute to society, and they need to make this contribution lasting. At the same time, failure to create something relevant leads to frustration, depression, and anxiety. This state is referred to as stagnation (Cheng, 2009).
The practitioner should apply this theoretical framework when working with people in their middle adulthood. It is essential to identify the cause of the psychological problems of the client. One of the most common reasons may be stagnation. People failed to create something that could outlast them. Importantly, they believe they do not have time or are simply unable to complete this task. The practitioner should help the client to become committed to new achievements as they can improve his/her psychological and emotional well-being.
Late Adulthood
Late adulthood is the period when people look back and assess their life. Individuals may be very vulnerable, which means that they need a specific approach. When dealing with the elderly, it is necessary to use the concepts of integrity (Peterson, 2013). Erickson argues that people in their late adulthood try to attach meaning to the life they had. When they feel that they can accept their identity, they achieve integrity. Integrity can also be referred to as wisdom. The person understands who he/she is and accepts his/her personality. Those who fail to do so, feel distressed and anxious. Importantly, people may have difficulty identifying their selves. They can fail to accept who they are, but some fail to do both things.
The practitioner should apply the theoretical framework when working with the elderly. The practitioner should make sure that the client understands him/herself. The next step is to assist the client to come to terms with oneself. In other words, the client should accept his real identity, which often leads to reconciliation with his/her past.
On balance, it is possible to note that theoretical frameworks will lead the practitioner and provide the tools to address particular issues. Erickson’s theory of development is also one of the most applicable patterns that can be employed when addressing the problems of people at different stages of their lives. However, it is also necessary to remember to apply new knowledge and reveal new dimensions of well-known paradigms.
Reference List
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