All athletes try to increase their performance and very often they subscribe to ergogenic aids. Dietary nutritional supplementation for a long time has been a method of performance improvement. Huge amounts of money are spent annually on the so called performance enhancing products. It seems that when athletes and their trainers try to experiment with the cutting edge dietary supplement, it is the job of the scientists to support or deny their claims of performance enhancing. In this research paper I will introduce some performance enhancement products, describe their mechanisms of action, and reveal their positive and negative aspects concerning the general effect on the human body. There are several ways of gaining weight and muscles, as well as there are several dietary supplementations that claim to enhance the performance, and build the optimal muscle mass in the shortest amount of time. In this essay I will concentrate attention on creatine monohydrate, which is a nitrogenous acid that naturally occurs in the skeletal muscles of the vertebrates, as well as Centrum, which is a complex of polyvitamins, and minerals. I will also draw a parallel between the effects of these two performance enhancing methods and regular diet.
The term muscle candy is widely used as a noun that describes a dietary supplement that increases energy and strength of athletes. These sports supplements help gain body mass due to muscle mass and their other name is performance enhancers. The most popular dietary supplement on todays marked is creatine monohydrate. Creatine is the substance that is responsible for storing the high energy phosphates that are required for muscular contractions, and it occurs naturally in the liver and kidneys. It increases muscle mass, just like steroids, and athletes who use creatine monohydrate consider it to be their legal alternative.
It is a nitrogenous acid, discovered in 1832 by Michel Eugene Chevereul as a part of a skeletal muscle, and named after the Greek Kreas, which means flesh. This substance converts back and forth from phosphocreatine and can be found in all vertebrates, and even in some invertebrates along with an enzyme called creatine kinase, which induces this conversion. A similar system consists of arginine kinase, and is based upon arginine/phosphoarginine conversion. Creatine/phosphocreatine is in a way considered an energy buffer, the task of which is to keep high ATP/ADP ratios at various subcellular places in need of ATP. This ensures the high level of free ATP energy and minimal adenosine nucleotide loss that can lead to cellular dysfunction. The described phosphocreatine/creatine, and phosphoarginine/arginine energy buffers are called phosphagens. The creatine kinase enzyme serves as a system of energy transport, as due to its subcompartmentalized isoforms at different sites, this enzyme transfers ATP from mitochondria to places in need of energy (myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, etc…). In humans, most of the creatine is stored in the skeletal muscle cells, and some in the heart, brain, testes, and other organs. The main source of creatine is synthesis from three amino acids: arginine, methionine, and glycine. An enzyme called guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase (GAMT), also known as L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT) is a mitochondrial enzyme expressed mainly in the kidneys. Its job is to catalyze the first rate-limiting step in creatine’s biosynthesis. According to Burke, Chilibeck, Parise, Candow, Mahoney, and Tarnopolsky (2003) there are several neurological defects which are caused by genetic creatine deficiencies. The most common form of creatine among athletes is creatine monohydrate, which consists of a creatine molecule connected with a water molecule. Another popular form of this supplement is creatine ethyl ester. There are also several methods for ingestion. The additive may be in form of a powder mixed that is mixed with a drink, as well as caplet or a capsule. After entering the human body creatine becomes highly bioavailable, regardless of whether it was ingested in the form of crystalline monohydrate, in solution as a free form, or in meat. When dissolved in water solutions, the salts of creatine are transformed into a free form. According to a study done by Steenge, Simpson, and Greenhaff (2000), it is recommended that creatine is consumed by athletes along with carbohydrates of high glycemic index, as such combination is considered beneficial. Right now there is evidence that supports taking creatine dietary supplements, as they effectively increase the performance during anaerobic cycling sprints, although concerning runners and swimmers, it is does not have as much effect. Probably this is explained by athlete’s weight gain. A study performed by Engelhardt, Neumann, Berbalk, and Reuter (1998) proved that creatine monohydrate increases the aerobic exercise power, although it has no essential aerobic endurance effect. Other similar studies have proved that creatine dietary supplementation elevates the fat-free body mass, although it is difficult to determine how much of this fat-free muscle mass are gained through athletic training. Several studies suggest that the body mass gain is occurring due to the muscle cells retaining water under the influence of creatine monohydrate. However it has been determined that the total body water increase is directly proportional to the weight gains. This implies to the fact that during creatine monohydrate intake the percentage of body water does not change significantly. Therefore there are currently two theories explaining the effects of creatine – one of them focuses on water retention, while the other measures the weight gain magnitude during a period of few weeks. It was proven that creatine causes a rise of satellite cells activity. This enables muscle hypertrophy, increasing the total body mass. Intake of creatine monohydrate increases the amount of myonuclei donated to damaged muscular fibers by the satellite cells. This mechanism increases the potential amount of growth for these muscle fibers. According to a research performed by Hespel, Eijnde, Derave, & Richter (2001), the ability of creatine monohydrate to elevate the levels of myogenic transcription factor (MRF4) probably explains its above influence on the myonuclei. In a study done by Huso, Hampl, Johnston, & Swan, discovered no change in the gain of fat mass during creatine monohydrate usage, and noticeable decrease of the fat mass after the trial with placebos for 12 weeks with ten active men. This study had suggested that substrate oxidation changes can inhibit the creatine associated loss of fat mass after weight training. As a result of this study, the total body mass and 1-RM bench press had not increased after placebo, but did increase after creatine. The use of creatine monohydrate by athletes, and especially teenagers is controversial, as its effects have not been fully studied. According to the Atlantic Monthly magazine article by Anne H. Soukhanov, entitled “World Watch” the extent to which creatine monohydrate increases muscle mass is still to be debated. A study carried out in 1996 by Volek and Kraemer discussed the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on human performance as well as theoretical basis for its application. According to their study creatine monohydrate supplementation for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) system can be compared to the loading of aerobic energy system with carbohydrates. This protein binds with phosphorus during short-duration work, characterized by high intensity, and forms a substance called phosphocreatine, which is an integral part of energetic metabolism. According to the research summary of Volek and Kraemer, an intake of 30 grams of creatine for six days in a row increases the intramuscular and plasma levels of creatine, which causes a 40% increase of phosphocreatine. However the highest increase of creatine was noted in the subjects who had the highest initial baseline levels of creatine, which may indicate that creatine’s effects are limited to those subjects with initially high levels of intramuscular creatine. Dietary supplementation of creatine monohydrate increases the resynthesis of phosphocreatine, and through this reduces the recovery time. Therefore more anaerobic work can be performed in a shorter time frame. Furthermore the research of Volek and Kraemer had demonstrated and increase of total work and maximal strength in those subjects who were supplemented with creatine monohydrate. The results of their study claim that the only discovered creatine monohydrate-related side effect is gain of body mass, however in the form this increase occurs in is yet unknown. Various questions still remain on the use of supplementation creatine monohydrate, as much of the previous research has been limited by short duration, small sample sizes, and poor methodology, however according to their study, many benefits of using creatine as an ergogenic aid are evident. It was suggested by Volek and Kraemer that long-term or multiple cycle consequences of creatine monohydrate supplementation have not been addressed, as there was only one study that examined supplementation of this substance in a cohort of athletes for more than one week. It is still necessary to determine the optimal creatine monohydrate dosage for multiple cycle usage, considering safety and optimal performance however some researchers have suggested that an individual should consume no more than 5 grams of creatine supplementation per day in order to facilitate its effects. Plasma creatine is being eliminated through the kidney barrier, however its effects on the renal system have not been studied. Further, it is important to study the potential side effects of this substance, such as high risk of soft tissue injury, as well as muscle cramping during continuous use. Although it is clear that creatine monohydrate has a tendency of improving athletic performance via the ATP-CP (adenosine triphosphate-creatine phosphate) energy system, much more research is required in order to investigate important questions that surround this practice. Practitioners must be aware of potential side effects that may be related to the use of creatine monohydrate. Coaches, athletic trainers, and sports scientists should recognize the limitations of the research base supporting the use of creatine monohydrate as an ergogenic aid.
As was explained by Demant & Rhodes (1999) there is approximately the same amount of evidence that supports the theory of creatine’s null effects, as well as its positive effects on performance. Benzi (2000) exemplified several episodic accounts of creatine monohydrate’s adverse side effects: effect on creatine and insulin production, kidney dysfunction, diarrhea, muscle cramping, dehydration, and gastrointestinal pains. Metzl et al (2001) had suggested that creatine monohydrate can be a gateway, leading to more harmful performance enhancers, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), or androstenedione. Many studies focused on creatine monohydrate’s efficacy were performed, however there was very little research on creatine supplementation patterns. This is true, especially for young male athletes who are above all influenced by body mass increasing creatine marketing strategies, and are the major target group for creatine consumption. Further research on this topic has to focus on examining relationships between dietary supplement use and individual physiological and psychological variables within this target population. A study by Greenwood et al., investigated the positive and negative effect among creatine monohydrate users, but did not touch upon comparing those using and not using this dietary supplement with respect to the above variables. Psychological aspect of dietary supplement research is of great importance. Lovstakken, Peterson and Homer (1999) discovered positive expectations of steroid effects linked with increased risk of using steroids, as well as negative social expectations among college students connected to lower steroid use risk. In 1996 Goldberg et al. used a special psycho-educational intervention with the intent to decrease the intentions towards steroid usage and elevate the level of resistance training and self efficacy among high school athletes. Creatine monohydrate is not banned by most of the sport-governing bodies and is not considered to be doping. Nevertheless, NCAA in the United States had made a new rule that forbid the colleges providing dietary supplements such as creatine monohydrate to their players, however the high school athletes are still permitted to buy and use creatine on their own. Some countries, for example France have a total ban on creatine.
Some athletes are favoring other dietary supplements, besides creatine monohydrate. A popular agent in the present day bodybuilding practice is Centrum Performance. This food supplement consists of a vitamin complex, with minerals, and ginseng and ginkgo biloba extracts. It contains such vitamins as retinol (vitamin A), ergocalciferol (vitamin D), tocopherol (vitamin E), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin (vitamin PP), pyridoxine (vitamin B6), folic acid (vitamin B9), cyanocobalamine (vitamin B12), biotin (vitamin H), pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), and menadione (vitamin K). The mineral supplements found in this supplement include calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium, zinc, iodine, copper, manganese, potassium, chloride, chromium, molybdenum, selenium. The medicine also contains ginkgo biloba and ginseng extracts. There are currently over 30 known vitamins. Some of them do not contain amino group, however they still are called vitamins. They are biologically active substances with low molecular weight that are responsible for normal course of biochemical and physiological processes in the body. Vitamins are necessary food compounds and they have significant influence on the metabolism in very insignificant amounts. The daily requirement for vitamins is measured in milligrams, and micrograms. Some of them tend to be synthesized in the organism in insufficient amounts, or are not synthesized at all, therefore should come into the body with food. Vitamins are a part of vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet, thus it is important to be aware of how much vitamin is in a certain product. They are extracted from foods using polar and non-polar solvents. All vitamins vary according to their chemical structure and qualities, and are divided into two groups according to their solubility – water soluble, and lipid soluble. The first water soluble group mostly includes vitamins of the C and B vitamin group, whereas A, D, E, K vitamins are lipid soluble. There are also provitamins, which under certain conditions can become vitamins and catalyze chemical reactions. These provitamins include for example carotin that becomes vitamin A. Unfortunately, there is no known research that would deal with the use of Centrum and its effects on weight and muscle gain. However it can be assumed that vitamins that are components of this supplement can have positive effect on increasing muscle gain. In some cases the athletes may demonstrate heroic efforts during their training however they might be failing to provide the muscle tissue with the muscle building vitamins, and therefore limiting muscle gains. The multivitamin consumption and their role in the health enhancement, especially during training is currently one of the most debated issues. In general, the human body is a huge chemical reactions mass. The enzymes that modify the speed of these reactions require co-enzymes in order to function properly. Most vitamins are co-enzymes that change the shape of enzymes and let them do their job. For example vitamin A catalyzes the process of glycogen production, as well as helps combining amino acids in order to synthesize protein and form new myocytes. Vitamin B1 contributes to the production of hemoglobin which supplies the muscle tissue with the needed oxygen, and is also involved in metabolism of proteins. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) induces the burning of fat and also increases the rate of glycolysis. Niacin has a tendency to dilate the vessels within the muscle tissue therefore allowing more oxygen supply the muscles. Vitamin B6 plays a vital role in protein digestion, and large quantities of protein are required during muscle building. Vitamin C is a crucial factor in the collagen formation, as well as plays a role in amino acid metabolism. This vitamin is also responsible for production of steroid hormones, which are directly related to muscle tissue growth. Vitamin D assists the organism in efficient absorbing of calcium and phosphorus, which are essential element of osteal structure. Phosphorus in its turn is involved in ATP synthesis, as it binds with creatine and ornithine to form phosphocreatine and phosphoornithine that have high energy potentials. Basically calcium and phosphorus are the most important microelements in the Centrum Performance dietary supplement. Vitamins are essential for god work and sport performance, especially when they are a part of a normal diet. Following the principle that if a little of something is good then a large amount of the same thing should be better, the discovery and identification of vitamins led to the administration of large doses of these substances in the hope that such a superdiet would result in superperformance (Morehouse, and Miller 291). According to Keys and Henschel, young individuals who daily use approximately 3700-4200 Calories are not in any way benefitted from amounts of thiamin chloride over 1.7 mg., riboflavin – over 2.4 mg., and ascorbic acid – over 70 mg. These facts clearly state that if the diet is normal, there is no need for vitamins, as the vitamin diet fortification does not improve work and exercise fitness. According to the research of Simonson, Baer, and Enzer, this was proven during dynamic and static work tests, treadmill tests, working in heavy industry, and muscular endurance tests. Neither one of the above testes showed any improvement on any of the subjects with normal diets when the dietary supplements (vitamins) were added to the food or administered intravenously. The amounts in which vitamins are stored in the body vary. The only use of a multivitamin complex, such as Centrum could be if ones diet is deficient in vitamins, and the vitamin stores are depleted, which causes physical deterioration and inability to perform muscular work. Specific vitamin deficiencies lead to certain impairing results. The exhausting of vitamin A takes a very long time, and this substance mostly impairs vision, rather than body mass. According to the studies done by Keys and colleagues (1944) the deficiency of vitamin B1 in 10 healthy men caused a severe decrease of ability to perform physical work in less than a week. Thiamine is vital, as its deficit causes the accumulation of lactic and pyruvic acids that in their turn depress muscular activity. According to the experiments of Kokas and Borka, who modeled vitamin E deficiency with rats, severe signs of muscle degenerative changes were revealed. However all these effects concern low levels of mentioned vitamins and minerals in owns diet. In cases of such insufficiencies, the use of vitamins would prove rational otherwise the best choice for a healthy human being would be a healthy diet. Concerning the regular diet, it is desired that one receives frequent feeding throughout the day. Concerning the ability to perform physical work, three meals a day are superior to two meals per day. It is essential that people are provided midforenoon and midafternoon snack as this increases their production efficiency. Taking coffee for breakfast is not desirable, as it is not enough to support activity throughout the whole morning. A much better choice is milk, fruit, and a slice of toast, as they will provide the necessary calories in order to maximize the potential physical work output. A good breakfast might also improve reaction time, and reduce the magnitude of tremor during tasks that require concentration. It is yet unknown, whether a heavy breakfast is better than light breakfast, but it is certainly preferred over plain coffee. Possibly, the physiologic responses are better after a light breakfast had been eaten, especially if the morning work is not too stressful. Before any type of physical work, a meal should be eaten at least two hours in advance, so that the stomach has enough time to digest the food, as a full stomach may impair the diaphragm inspiratory descent during intensive exercise, as well as reduce the cardiac action during physical exercise by restricting heart’s filling. A good meal must mainly consist of carbohydrates with moderate amounts of protein and small amounts of fat that is easily digested. Excluding the energetic value of meals that should not be under 1200 calories per day (but not over 3500), it is important for the diet to be manifold. This means that the food must contain a certain amount of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates with the minimal amounts of vitamins and minerals. It is believed that the ratio of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates according to their mass should be 1:1:4. This means that the products that contain proteins should optimally blend with vegetable and animal fats, as well as carbohydrates (amylum, sugar, and cellulose).
I have linked the above essay to a following experiment. It is entitled “Exposure to the mass media, body shape concerns, and use of supplements to improve weight and shape among male and female adolescents” from the August 2005 issue of Pediatrics Journal. The objective of this study is to evaluate the prevalence and correlates of products used for weight and shape improvement among male and female adolescents. The methods of this study include conduction of cross-sectional study of 6212 girls and 4237 boys ages 12-18. The researchers evaluated at least weekly use of such appearance or mass improving products, as protein powders or shakes, creatine, amino acids/hydroxymethylbutyrate, dehydroepiandrosterone, growth hormone, or anabolic injectable steroids. The results have indicated that approximately 4.7% of the boys and 1.6% of the girls used protein powder or shakes, creatine, amino acids/HMB, dehydroepiandrosterone, growth hormone, or anabolic/injectable steroids at least weekly to improve appearance or strength. In multivariate models, boys and girls who thought a lot about wanting more defined muscles (boys: odds ratio [OR]: 1.6; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-2.2; girls: OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.2-3.2) or were trying to gain weight (boys: OR: 3.0; 95% CI: 2.0-4.6; girls: OR: 4.3; 95% CI: 1.6-11.4) were more likely than their peers to use these products. In addition, boys who read men’s, fashion, or health/fitness magazines (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.1-4.9) and girls who were trying to look like women in the media (OR: 2.9; 95% CI: 1.4-4.0) were significantly more likely than their peers to use products to improve appearance or strength, but hours per week watching television, watching sports on television, and participation in team sports were not independently associated with using products to improve appearance or muscle mass. The authors concluded that those individuals who desired toned and well-defined muscles were at an increased risk of enhancing their physique with potentially harmful products. It was revealed that girls mostly want to achieve lower body weight, whereas boys desire to increase their muscle mass.
Works Cited
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