Introduction
The Women’s Movement, also called the Feminist Movement and the Women’s Liberation Movement, includes a series of efforts by women in the world to fight for restoration of gender equality. The Movement began mainly in Britain and the United States, and went on to accelerate to a lesser degree in the former and to a tremendous degree in the latter. “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it’s the only that that ever has.” These sage words of famous American cultural anthropologist Margaret Mead is an appropriate elucidation of the Women’s Movement as it progressed from its humble beginnings to its stunning world-changing achievements, coordinated by a group of simple, ordinary women gifted with single-minded and dedicated zeal and steely determination to make the world a better place for women to live in. Starting from 1865, there have been many milestones in the successful progress of the Women’s Movement.
1865 – 1892
The Declaration of Sentiments that was signed in the immediate aftermath of the first women’s rights Convention held in New York on July 13, 1848 by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and others was greeted with widespread and scathing newspaper editorials. Its manifesto: “We declare these rights to be self-evident, that all men and women are created equal,”3 and its aim, to “end discrimination against women both within their households and beyond” was something unheard of. The violent backlash caused some women who had participated in the Convention to distance themselves from the ‘new Movement.’ But the majority of them did not back down and their stubborn stance paid off as something totally unexpected happened. The vitriolic newspaper reports actually struck a sympathetic chord in thousands of readers, and soon Americans in cities and towns all over the nation began taking increasing interest in the new topic of women’s rights.
The National Woman Suffrage Association was formed in May 1869 by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Its aim was to gain suffrage or voting rights through an official Amendment to the American Constitution by Congress. In November that year, Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell set up the American Woman Suffrage Association . Its aim was the same as the NWSA except that it planned to get it via official Amendments to different State Constitutions by state governments. Both suffrage associations soon decided it was in their best overall interest to join forces, and they did so in 1890 by merging into the National American Woman Suffrage Association . Its main objective was to concentrate efforts on gaining voting rights for women by a sustained state-wise campaign.
1893 – 1920
Susan B. Anthony led NAWSA until old age forced her to step down in 1900; under her leadership, a massive campaign was begun with the help of hundreds of political strategists, organizations, administrative staff and activists. All struggled valiantly as one team in the face of massive odds, employing unique strategies and ingenious methods to outsmart adversaries and maximize their frugal resources. The main leaders who assisted Susan B. Anthony were Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Lucy Stone, Esther Morris, Abigail Scott Duniway, Ida B. Wells-Barnett, Anna Howard Shaw, Carrie Chapman Catt and Ruth Bader Ginsburg.
In addition to the NAWSA, many other women’s rights organizations began coming up. Notable among them was the National Association of Colored Women in 1896 under the leadership of Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, Mary Church Terrell and Anna Julia Cooper; the National Women’s Trade Union League in 1903 to press for better wages and working conditions; and the Congressional Union in 1913 by Lucy Burns and Alice Paul to pressurize Congress to grant women the right to vote by engaging in various forms of civil disobedience including picketing the White House .
The hard fought for right to vote was finally won when Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1920, bringing huge elation to the Women’s Movement activists.
1921 – 1960
The Women’s Movement next targeted the lack of equality of laws based on gender and culture. Leaders like Alice Paul declared that the struggle for women’s rights had been exacerbated, and not satiated, by winning the right to vote. In 1920, the Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor was set up to collect data about working conditions of women and press for improvement wherever necessary. Many former suffragists began a campaign calling for laws to safeguard women workers against abuse and hazardous situations. In 1923, Alice Paul who by then had formed the National Woman’s Party, took the bold step of publicly drafting a proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution that would give women equal rights as men all over the country. Alice Paul insisted that women should penetrate political parties because the only way to achieve anything was from the ‘inside of political parties.’
Margaret Sanger spearheaded the organization of the American Birth Control League in 1921. It’s main declaration was that women had the right of control over their bodies particularly in matters relating to birth and sexuality; it not only meant letting women take their own decision when and if they intended become mothers, but it also involved educating them about prevalent ways of birth control. In what was seen as limited success of the efforts of the American Birth Control League, the U.S Supreme Court ruled in 1936 that birth control information could no longer be considered obscene, the American Medical Association approved birth control as a legal part of medicine in 1937, and the Food & Drug Administration approved the sale of birth control pills in 1960.
1961 – 1971
In 1961 the continuing efforts of Esther Petersen in fighting discrimination against women persuaded President John F. Kennedy to set up a Commission on the Status of Women with Eleanor Roosevelt as Chairperson. The Commission submitted a detailed report in 1963 listing instances of discrimination against women in nearly every aspect of American life, and suggested remedies such as paid maternal leave and cheap child care. This made state and local governments scramble to emulate the federal example and they set up their own Commissions to investigate discriminatory practices against women and suggest remedies.
In 1963 Betty Friedan released her book ‘The Feminine Mystique.’ Based on real-life surveys of women trapped in domestic seclusion with small children,the book listed the mental and emotional suppression that middle-class literate women endured due to scarce life options. The book was a huge boost for the Women’s Movement as it immediately turned into a massive bestseller and encouraged large numbers of women to seek satisfaction beyond the home. Also in 1963 the Equal Pay Act was enacted by Congress that directed employers to pay men and women equally for the same job.
In 1964 the Civil Rights Act was passed by Congress banning discrimination in employment on grounds of gender. Seeing that the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was not serious in checking infringements to the Act, Betty Friedan, other activities and the Chairpersons of different state Commissions on the Status of Women set up the National Organization for Women in 1966 as a central civil rights organization for women. Under its guidance and support, a large number of smaller organizations were formed, each catering to the requirements of certain groups of women such as African-Americans, Latinas, Asian-Americans, Lesbians, tradeswomen and professional women. In 1967 Presidential Order 11375 tightened measures against discrimination based on sex. It directed federal institutions and contractors to make sure that women got similar education and work chances as men.
1972 – 1991
In June 1972 the Education Amendment Title IX was passed, prohibiting discrimination in schools on basis of gender. It led to a spurt of widespread admission of women into athletics activities and professional schools. In July 1972 co-founder and editor Gloria Steinem launched ‘Ms. Magazine’ which gained such immediate and huge popularity that it turned into an important medium of expression for women and catapulted Steinem as a heroine of the Women’s Movement.
On January 22, 1973 the Supreme Court passed a landmark ruling in Roe v. Wade declaring that based on the right to privacy, a woman supported by her doctor had the right to undergo abortion without restrictions during the first trimester of her pregnancy, and with restrictions during the second trimester. The Court ruling nullified and cancelled the existing Texan law on abortion and effectively made the practice of abortion legal all over the country. Also in 1973 the Supreme Court ruled that gender differentiated advertisements in newspapers were unlawful; the ruling paved the way for women to submit applications for better-paying jobs for which only men were earlier eligible.
In 1974 the Equal Credit Opportunity act was passed, banning consumer credit discrimination on grounds of sex. In 1978 the Pregnancy Discrimination Act was passed, prohibiting employment discrimination against pregnant women; acts like firing, job denial and promotion denial on grounds of pregnancy were declared illegal. In 1984 the financial network EMILY’s List was set up to encourage pro-choice Democratic women interested in candidature of national political office jobs; its effectiveness was soon evident as more and more women began getting elected to Congress. In 1985 all states had passed ‘no-fault’ divorce legislations that permitted married couples to divorce each other by mutual agreement. In 1986 the Supreme Court ruled in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson that sexual harassment was another type of unlawful job discrimination.
1992 to present
In 1992 the Supreme Court reconfirmed women’s right to abortion in Planned Parenthood v. Casey thereby effectively nullifying the 1989 Abortion Control Act which Pennsylvania was trying to legitimize even though it had been declared unconstitutional. In 1994 the Violence against Women Act was passed. It increased the punishment for perpetual sex offenders, provided funds to rehabilitate those traumatized by rape and domestic violence, and initiated special training courses for police officers on ways to deal with crimes of violence against women. In 1996 the Supreme Court ruling in United States v. Virginia making it mandatory for the male-only Virginia Military School to also enroll women, failing which it would not continue to receive federal funds.
In 1999 the Supreme Court ruled in Kolstad v. American Dental Association that a woman can seek punitive damages on grounds of gender discrimination even if the act in question was not particularly serious. In 2003 the Supreme Court ruled in Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs that federal agencies could sue any state on grounds of infringing the clauses of the Family Leave Medical Act. In 2005 the Supreme Court ruled in Jackson v. Birmingham Board of Education that Title IX which bans discrimination on grounds of gender also implies banning disciplinary action against anyone for protesting about gender-based discrimination.
Conclusion
Ever since Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s innocuous tea party launched a revolution, the Women’s Movement today has achieved all the targets laid down in the original Declaration of Sentiments. Besides having won the right to vote, women have brought about irrevocable changes in hundreds of laws thereby succeeding in breaking the restraining shackles that had been imposed on women’s personal hopes and aspirations, legal standing and position in society. Women have crossed each and every threshold, be it employment , military, clergy and newsroom. Women have achieved all this because they have contributed wholeheartedly and unselfishly to create the famous ‘completed mosaic’ earlier envisioned by Alice Paul: “I always feel the [Women’s] movement is a sort of mosaic; each of us puts in one little stone, and then you get a great mosaic at the end.”
Today, not everything has been totally achieved by the Women’s Movement. Injustices continue to plague women albeit on a much lesser and negligible scale. Women should take heart from the leaders of the Women’s Movement by continuing to tackle such injustices regularly, be it in the courts of law or in meeting rooms of organizations or within the walls of their houses. On the national front, a grey area still exists in that there are very few women leaders in Congress. However, judging by the formidable showing of two stalwarts , women are well on their way towards establishing a stronger presence in Congress and the White House.
References
Baker, Jean H. Sisters: The Lives of America’s Suffragists. USA: Hill & Wang, 2005.
Eisenberg, Bonnie & Ruthsdotter, Mary. “Living the Legacy: The Women’s Rights Movement 1848–1998.” National Women’s History Project. Web.
Imbornoni, Ann-Marie. “Women’s Rights Movement in the U.S.” Pearson Education Inc. 2008. Web.
Lewis, Jone Johnson. “Roe v. Wade Supreme Court Decision.” 2008. Web.
Matthews, Jean V. The Rise of the New Woman: The Women’s Movement in America 1875 – 1930. USA: Ivan R. Dee, 2004.