Wu Zetian was the only female monarch in the history of China, who rose to power due to her distinguished personal qualities and ruled the country for around 50 years. In imperial China, women were inferior to men and were praised for traits that helped them serve their husbands and be worthy of them. Wu Zetian’s character and actions often contradicted the common perceptions of feminine behavior and can be considered as proto-feminist, changing the role of women in society.
Character of Wu Zetian
Wu Zetian was the only female monarch in the history of China. She ruled from 665 to 690 through her husband Emperor Gaozong and her sons Emperors Zhingzong and Ruizong, and then became empress regnant of the Zhou dynasty and ruled from 690 to 705 (Custer 2019). Her reign was characterized by the major expansion of the Chinese empire, a series of wars, important changes in social classes in Chinese society, and state support for Taoism, Buddhism, education, and literature (Peterson 2016). Though ruthless towards her enemies, Wu Zetian was a skilled monarch, and her rule was marked by profound efforts to strengthen the empire and political stability.
Throughout all her life, Wu Zetian had strived for and achieved considerable political power, gradually establishing her authority at court. She was the real power behind the throne for 23 years of her marriage to Emperor Gaozong and usurped the throne after the death of her children. Wu Zetian was described as a well-educated and charismatic woman and a strong political leader (Custer 2019). The traditional folklore portrays her as a determined person, ruthless in her endeavors to grab power, who did not care for who she hurt and what she did (Peterson 2016). She was even suspected of murdering her own child to eliminate her competitor (Custer 2019). Overall, her actions and character provided a contrast to the behavior of women typical for imperial China, and she was equally admired and criticized.
Women in Imperial China
Imperial China was characterized by a strict division of sexes, with women regarded as inferior to men. They were restricted from participation in various realms of social life and generally remained at home while business was conducted by men. Imperial policies prevented women from owning property, taking examinations, and holding office, they were educated separately, and their activities were generally limited to female-specific occupations (Cartwright 2017). The social life was structured according to the Confucian gender principles of the separation of male and female, with women being subordinate to first their fathers, then their husbands, and, finally, if being left a widow, to their sons (Hinsch 2018). Male qualities were considered predominant, and women were praised for their softness, submissiveness, lightness, and gentleness (Juanhui 2015). They were expected to excel in four areas: fidelity, cautious speech, industriousness, and gentle manners (Cartwright 2017). Overall, women in imperial China were supposed to be worthy of their husbands, and it was rare for a woman to have real and recognized power in a social or political arena.
Chinese Ideals of Feminine Behavior
The Chinese ideals of feminine behavior can be observed based on the material from the book Exemplary Women of Early China. It features the biographies of some of the most notable women in Chinese history and provides an overview of the representation of women’s roles in traditional Chinese society. The book is divided into eight chapters based on the characteristics of the featured characters: “maternal models,” “worthy and enlightened,” “sympathetic and wise,” “chaste and compliant,” “principled and righteous,” “accomplished rhetoricians,” and “depraved and favored” (Xiang 2014). The women described in each chapter possess a certain set of qualities that were seen as ideal characteristics of feminine behavior.
The women whose biographies are included in the chapter “The Worthy and Enlightened” are governed by wisdom and righteousness in their actions. The preface notes, “With complete knowledge of the principle of things, they grasp the precepts and rules of the world” (Xiang 2014, 26). Queen Jiang, consort of King Xuan of Zhou, approaches her husband, saying that it is because of her that he has started to neglect his duties, going to bed early and rising late. Her words have an effect, and he changes his habits to devote more time to government affairs (Xiang 2014). The wife of Dazi of Tao leaves her husband because he cares only for his personal wealth while neglecting his duties after trying to reason with him (Xiang 2014). Both women are governed by the sense of duty and put the common good over their personal wishes, which is regarded as sensible and virtuous behavior.
In the chapter “The Sympathetic and Wise,” women are described whose words and actions display wisdom and cautiousness. One of them, the wife of Duke Ling of Wey, correctly guesses who of her husband’s ministers has passed near their tower, describing his most loyal servant. After her husband tells her that she is wrong, she does not argue with him but congratulates him on having more than one loyal minister (Xiang 2014). Her behavior can be characterized as wise, insightful, and cautious.
The women in the chapter “The Chaste and Compliant” are praised for their loyalty to their husbands. The widowed wife of Wey comes to Wey to be married to its ruler but learns that he has died, so she stays in the city for three years and refuses to marry the new ruler of Wey, “remaining true to her diseased lord” (Xiang 2014, 71). The wife of the man of Cai refuses to leave him after he has been contracted a loathsome disease (Xiang 2014). Generally, Chinese women are valued for their devotedness to ensuring their fidelity.
The chapter “The Principled and Righteous” praises women for their righteousness and trustworthiness. The stepmother of Qi is summoned to the king to tell him which of her sons, both of whom are accused of murder, should be killed. She tells the king to kill her youngest son, explaining that the eldest is the son of her husband’s first wife that she promised to take care of, and she will not break the promise. The king, impressed by her good faith, spares both her sons (Xiang 2014). Overall, righteousness, wisdom, cautiousness, loyalty, and virtue are the main characteristics of the feminine behavior valued in imperial China.
Wu Zetian and the Ideals of Feminine Behavior
Compared to the ideals of feminine behavior praised in the Chinese literature, it can be noted that Wu Zetian’s actions only partially relate to them. Chinese women were encouraged to be worthy and enlightened and governed by the pursuit for the greater good in their actions (Hinsch 2018). Wu Zetian was protecting and enforcing her country’s interests while pursuing her own ambitions for power. Chinese women were not supposed to strive for power themselves but only help and support their husbands in their duties, putting common interests before their own personal wishes. Wu Zetian was ambitious and power-hungry, which were the characteristics typically encountered in men.
Another important characteristic of Chinese women was cautiousness. They were supposed to think before speaking and judge wisely. Wu Zetian was more hot-tempered and resolute in her actions, as can be concluded from her descriptions as a strong and authoritarian ruler (Peterson 2016). Her righteousness, however, was not questioned, as she was praised for it, along with her political wisdom and insightfulness (Custer 2019). Her loyalty to her husband also complies with the ideals of feminine behavior of that time to the extent where her political ambitions were not concerned (Custer 2019). She was the power behind the throne and significantly influenced her husband’s political decisions.
Overall, it can be concluded that We Zetian was guided by her ideas of her country’s prosperity along with her own ambitions for power, which was more typical for men than women of imperial China. Modern-day historians suggest that she was no more ruthless than male emperors of that time and was merely a victim of double standards (Peng 2015). In modern literature, Wu Zetian’s life activities and practices are thought to demonstrate proto-feminism and gender equality in sexuality, social status, politics, and women’s pursuit of power (Peng 2015). She can be considered as a woman who revolutionized the common perceptions of women and expanded the Chinese notions of gender roles.
Conclusion
In imperial China, governed by the Confucian principles of gender separation, women were supposed to be inferior to men and display virtue and righteousness without pursuing any political or social ambitions. Wu Zetian’s character and actions contradicted the common perceptions of women. Although wise and righteous, she was ambitious and strived for power, and she achieved it due to her distinguished personal qualities. Her behavior was more typical of men than women of that time and can be regarded as revolutionary in terms of the traditional Chinese ideas on gender.
References
Cartwright, Mark. 2017. “Women in Ancient China.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Web.
Custer, Charles. 2019. “The Life of Wu Zetian.” ThoughtCo. Web.
Jianhui, Sun. 2015. “Ancient China’s “Virtuous” Women.” The World of Chinese. Web.
Hinsch, Bret. 2018. Women in Ancient China. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
Peng, Nadya, Tianyuan Yu, and Albert Mills. 2015. “Feminist Thinking in Late Seventh-Century China: A Critical Hermeneutics Analysis of the Case of Wu Zetian.” Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal 34 (1): 67–83. Web.
Peterson, Barbara Bennett. 2016. Notable Women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century. New York: Routledge.
Xiang, Liu. 2014. Exemplary Women of Early China. New York: Columbia University Press.