According to Heise (1998, p. 262), Violence against women is any incidence of gender-based violence that ends up in, or is likely to end up in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women. This includes threats, coercion or unwarranted deprivations of freedom, whether occurring in private life or public.
While the incidence of this kind of violence is to a large extent global, it is more prevalent in some households as compared to others. An analysis of the various reasons for the prevalence of domestic violence was carried out and the findings reported below are varied as the manifestations of the phenomenon.
Culture and norms by and large undergo changes with time. However, some aspects of traditions are retained even with passage of time. One of these aspects is the position of the man in the home (Pourreza, Batebi, & Moussavi, 2004, p. 34).
Since time immemorial, society has granted the man dominion over his wife and inflexible gender roles have seen masculinity being directly associated with power and authority. The same traditions have ‘legitimized’ the use of violence as a way of solving differences of opinion. Women that would like to challenge the authority granted to the man are seen as wayward and in marriage are vulnerable to domestic violence.
As is in most cases, going into marriage the man is conventionally seen to assume ownership of the woman and this automatically guarantees him control over her whole being including her sexuality. In some extreme cultures, errant women particularly those who involve in adultery are sentenced to death by cruel methods like stoning while the man goes scot free. If a woman in such a case is allowed to live, she is supposed to take in random acts of violence meted against her by relatives without complaining on account of the shame that she has subjected the family to.
The socioeconomic status definitely has some influence over the issue of gender based violence. Women coming from low socioeconomic status generally tend to experience more episodes of violence than their counterparts from higher socioeconomic status (Tolman & Rosen, 2001, p. 143).
Poverty comes along with a sense of hopelessness and women in such conditions are willing to endure all kinds of suffering just to earn a living. Due to low economic power, these women lack the necessary resources to escape from abusive marriages. Their husbands are more often than not stressed, frustrated and have a feeling of inadequacy for not having lived up to their socially defined responsibility of breadwinner. As a result, they find it easy to vent their anger on their hapless wives and children.
Men being the common perpetrators of violence against women are generally influenced by events in their childhood. Men who witnessed gender based violence particularly against their mothers or sisters are likely to continue with the trend as are men who were physically abused as children (Renzetti, & Bergen, 2005, p. 235). They tend to learn earlier in life that the best way to resolve misunderstanding is through violence.
They also see this as a way of displaying their manhood judging from the kind of authority and ‘respect’ they see their abusive father commanding. Men who have grown up with an absentee or rejecting father may not develop proper family skills due to lack of a model. They find it hard to peacefully relate with their wives and children and when a minor disagreement arises they resort to violence and more so if they are on the wrong. Women who are brought up in abusive families as well learn to take in and accept violence directed at them as an acceptable way of solving conflict. As a result, a never-ending chain of domestic violence tolerance is created with daughter learning from mother.
Another factor that greatly contributes to the high incidence of violence against women is the issue of legal protection. According to Steinmetz and Straus (1974, p. 321), the lack of legal protection and low legal literacy levels among women also contribute to the prevalence of gender based violence. In most societies, the laws have clauses for protection of the women’s rights in public places but no provisions are made for maintenance of these rights within homes.
In most states violence against women is not seen as a major offence, and law enforcers are not trained to handle this kind of aggression. Men are free to mistreat their wives knowing very well that nothing can be done to them. It is only in extreme cases like when the woman is murdered that we see police coming in to arrest the man even though prompt intervention could have saved a life.
Legal definitions do not adequately cover topics of rape and sexual violence. Administrative officers, particularly in developing countries use sexual brutality as a method of getting confessions from female detainees. Seeing that legal systems in these regions don’t have the provision for independent investigation against the police, such cases of violence against women often go unpunished.
Alcohol and hard drugs commonly result in impaired judgment and a reduced sense of tolerance. As a result, men who use them are more likely to instigate violence against their family members and in a traditional family setup of father, mother and children, it is most likely that the hostility will be directed at the wife (Tolman & Rosen, 2001, p. 153).
Conflict among married people also has a bearing in the prevalence of violence against women. It has been argued time and again that the compatibility of a man and woman will essentially determine the level of happiness in the marriage. Ill-assorted coupling often results in incessant disagreements which in most cases end up in physical or psychological abuse against the woman (Renzetti, & Bergen, 2005, p. 38).
From both observational and psychological points of view authority of women in institutions other than their homes is a determinant factor on the occurrence of domestic violence. Women who have assumed positions of leadership and authority in institutions outside their homes generally tend to experience few incidents of violence against them (Steinmetz & Strauss, 1974, p. 25). This is because they are able to stand in support of their principles and can challenge any unreasonable demands from their husbands.
The positioning of the family in relation to the entire community heavily determines the likelihood of violence against women (Steinmetz & Strauss, 1974, p. 6). Families which are secluded from public scrutiny tend to report higher rates of wife abuse.
In more open families where relatives and other members of society are able to promptly intervene, reports of domestic violence are lessened. Women’s participation in formal social groups such self help groups or political parties reduce their chances of falling victim to domestic violence as well as increase their ability to resolve conflict within the home without having it turn into violence.
Human beings are social beings and a majority of decisions made are heavily dependent on the influence of peers. Men generally tend to value social associations more than women to the extent that even in marriage they find it hard to abandon their ‘boy’ clubs.
Delinquent friends who have no sense of proper family practices may end up influencing their responsible counterparts to neglect their families (Heise, 1998, p. 278). The men who have strong and overbearing wives are often advised by their peers to exercise their authority by use of violence in a bid to ‘tame’ their women.
Conclusion
It is worth noting that violence against women is a global phenomenon. However, certain factors as has been detailed above predispose some women to violence as compared to others.
These are factors are either cultural or socioeconomic in nature and are seen at individual, family or community levels. The major challenge faced in the collection of data to back up the premises that had been established was the fact that most of the information available in books and journals focused on the statistical/quantitative data as opposed to qualitative issues.
The setback was however countered by ensuring that a large collection of resources was consulted and the most relevant issues as far as the topic at hand was concerned were recorded. Finally, it is only important to appreciate that domestic violence has been in existence since time immemorial and that most of the reasons that caused disparity in the prevalence of the vice 1000 years ago are the same that cause the variance today; just in different setting.
References
Heise, L.L. (1998). Violence against women: An Integrated, ecological framework. Sage Journals Online, 4, 262–290.
Pourreza, A., Batebi, A., & Moussavi, P. (2004). A survey about knowledge and attitudes of people towards violence against women in community family settings. Iranian Public Health Journal, 33(2), 33–37.
Renzetti, C., & Bergen, R.K. (2005). Violence against women. Maryland, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.
Steinmetz, S.K., & Straus, M.A. (Eds.). (1974). Violence in the family. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
Tolman, R.T., & Rosen, D. (2001). Domestic violence in the lives of women receiving welfare: Mental health, substance dependence, and economic well-being. Sage Journals Online, 7, 141–158.