Introduction
Domestic violence against women refers to “any act of gender-based violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, and mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts as coercion” (Renzetti and Bergen 32).
Domestic violence against women is one of the oldest social and public health problems in the history of humanity. It began in the traditional society when women were subordinated to men. The culture of most communities in the pre-modern world considered women to be equal to children. Besides, most communities viewed women as men’s properties (Latchana 17).
As a result, women had very limited rights in the society. Men influenced nearly all aspects of women’s lives including their participation in economic activities, leadership, and social relationships such as marriage. This led to various forms of violence against women such as sexual harassment, deprivation of liberty, and physical abuse. For instance, battering was considered as a means of punishing errant women rather than a form of physical abuse. In the 1870s, men began to change their perception of women (McGee 34).
In the United States, the courts abolished the common-law principle that allowed men to punish their wives. Similarly, men’s right to punish their wives was abolished in the United Kingdom in 1891. The government and the civil society in virtually all countries are constantly campaigning against domestic violence against women. However, the prevalence of the problem is still very high.
The symptoms of domestic violence include insulting or calling a female spouse names, and preventing them from going to work or visiting their families. Other symptoms include inflicting physical pain, controlling how women expend their money, forcing women to have sex, and threatening them with violence. The risk factors associated with domestic violence against women include “low levels of income, witnessing family violence, antisocial personality disorder, and uncontrolled use of alcohol” (WHO).
Other risk factors include past history of violence, low levels of education, marital discord, and poor communication in relationships. Women with low levels of education are likely to tolerate domestic violence because of lack of adequate knowledge about their rights, or the measures that they can take to prevent the violence. Similarly, women with low-income levels are likely to tolerate domestic violence because they depend on men for their financial needs.
In addition, low self-esteem prevents women from reporting violence against them or quitting abusive relationships. Generally, domestic violence affects women in every country, race, ethnicity, and social class. Consequently, domestic violence against women should be taken seriously because it is increasing, it has negative effects on child development, and it adversely affects women’s health.
The Prevalence of Domestic Violence against Women
The prevalence of domestic violence against women is on the rise despite the efforts made by governmental and non-governmental organizations to address it. At least 35% of women worldwide have experienced some or all forms of domestic violence (WHO).
Globally, nearly a “third of women who have been in a relationship have experienced physical and or sexual violence by their intimate partner” (Latchana 72). The fatalities attributed to domestic violence against women is equally on the rise in nearly all parts of the world. Recent studies have indicated that domestic violence is one of the leading causes of murder among women worldwide.
In particular, domestic violence accounts for approximately 38% of the women murdered every year in various parts of the world (WHO). Undoubtedly, the prevalence of domestic violence against women is likely to be much higher than the figures reported in national or worldwide surveys. This perspective is supported by the fact that most women who are in abusive relationships do not report their plight to the police.
Besides, the circumstances under which national surveys are administered make abused women reluctant to admit that they have experienced domestic violence in their lifetime. For instance, during an interview a woman may deny having experienced domestic violence for fear of embarrassment. Domestic violence against women is on the rise because people tend to ignore it. In most societies including the United States, people tend to ignore domestic violence against women due to the following factors.
To begin with, domestic violence manifests itself in several ways that are sometimes difficult to identify. For instance, a simple emotional abuse that is followed by an apology by the man who commits it can easily be ignored even though it is a harmful form of domestic violence against a woman. The toll on women’s self-esteem increases with the longevity of their stay in abusive relationships (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110).
In addition, women begin to feel helpless or defeated as they continue to stay in abusive relationships. In some cases, women with problems such as physical disability may feel dependent upon the men who abuse them. In this regard, women are likely to tolerate or fail to report their plight to the police. For women in same sex relationships, the tendency to ignore domestic violence is even more likely (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110).
Women who are abused in same sex relationships hardly seek help because of their reluctance to disclose their sexual orientation. Even if they seek help, abused women in same sex relationships are likely to be ignored because of the belief that women cannot be violent to other women (Latchana 78). Generally, domestic violence against women is highly ignored in masculine societies where women are still considered inferior to men.
The prevalence of domestic violence against women has been disputed due to several reasons. People believe that the advancements in the United States’ legal system have adequately addressed the problem of domestic violence in the country (Renzetti and Bergen 112). In particular, the constitution has granted men and women equal rights. Thus, men can no longer dominate or abuse women without being punished through the legal system.
The increased empowerment of women through education, as well as, participation in leadership and economic activities is believed to have led to a decline in domestic violence against women (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 84). The gist of this argument is that women with high education and income security are less dependent on men. Thus, they are likely to quit abusive relationships or take legal action against their abusive partners (Enrique 536-537).
The argument that the legal system has adequately addressed the problem of domestic violence against women is misguided. Although the constitution protects women from domestic violence, legal assistance is still out of reach to many women (Latchana 83).
Several women, especially, among the low-income and ethnic minorities cannot afford legal services (Renzetti and Bergen 145). This makes them more vulnerable to domestic violence. Although empowering women is likely to reduce domestic violence, empirical evidence suggests otherwise.
For instance, women with very high educational achievement and financial income have always complained of domestic violence (WHO). Besides, factors such as the need to protect family name, personal image, and children force women to stay in abusive relationships despite their empowerment (Enrique 536-537). This explains the increase in cases of domestic violence despite the efforts made by the society to stop it.
The Effects on Child Development
Children are negatively affected by domestic violence against women in several ways. To begin with, children often witness domestic violence directly as their parents engage in physical or verbal confrontations (WHO). In the United States, approximately 15 million children stay in homes where domestic violence occurs at least once a year (WHO). In this regard, children are secondary victims of domestic violence against women.
Consequently, they are likely to experience emotional and psychological harm as a result of living in homes where domestic violence occurs. Children who grow in families where domestic violence is rampant are likely to become abusive in adulthood (McGee 96). To elucidate, the children are likely to believe that violence against women is a normal way of settling differences in relationships. As a result, incidences of domestic violence against women will continue to rise.
Domestic violence against women is one of the major factors that contribute to the displacement of children from their homes. It is also one of the major causes of separation between children and their parents. In the United States, thousands of children are taken every year by organizations that provide shelter services to battered women.
In this case, the shelter services deny the children the opportunity to live with both parents (Latchana 119). Undoubtedly, the presence of both parents is essential for child development. Thus, separating children from one or both of their parents because of domestic violence is detrimental to their development. Several studies have indicated that children who witness domestic violence are vulnerable to psychological disorders (WHO).
To elucidate, the children tend to be fearful and more aggressive than their counterparts who live in families where domestic violence does not occur. In addition, children who witness domestic violence are likely to experience high levels of stress, depression, and anxiety. Children tend to believe that they are the cause of the abuses that occur in their homes. Moreover, they develop fear for their lives and that of their mothers if they cannot stop the violence.
As a result, they feel guilty and develop stress whenever domestic violence occurs in their homes. Children who witness domestic violence often exhibit symptoms of “post-traumatic disorders such as bed-wetting and nightmares” (McGee 103). In addition, the children are likely to develop medical conditions such as asthma, allergies, and migraines.
Children also become victims of domestic violence when their fathers use them to manipulate their mothers. For instance, a man can threaten to take custody or harm the children if his spouse informs the police of the abuse. This is likely to happen in a situation where the mother is likely to lose a legal suit to take custody of the children due to problems such as drug abuse. It also suggests that the fear of ruining children’s future is one of the main reasons why women tolerate domestic violence.
Several arguments have been advanced to counter the claim that domestic violence against women has adverse effects on children. One of the arguments is that the negative effects of child exposure to domestic violence are likely to reduce over time (McGee 121). Once the violence stops, children can be socialized to embrace peace rather than aggression.
In addition, emotional and psychological therapies can be used to help the children to manage the post-traumatic symptoms of domestic violence (Renzetti and Bergen 151). Babies and very young children lack the capacity to understand the significance of domestic violence (Latchana 65).
As a result, they are not likely to be affected even if they witness domestic violence against women in their homes. Understanding the effect of domestic violence on children is also difficult. For instance, several cases have been identified where children love their fathers and opt to stay with them despite abusing their mothers (McGee 124). This suggests that children either do not understand the significance of domestic violence or support their abusive fathers’ actions.
The argument that the effects of child exposure to violence reduces with time is not always true. Boys who live in homes where domestic violence is rampant tend to be abusive in adulthood irrespective of the time at which the violence stopped in their families (WHO).
This suggest that the passage of time and psychological therapies are not effective in helping children to cope with the effects of being exposed to violence at an early stage of development (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110). In addition, the impacts of domestic violence on children tend to persist. Children are likely to remember traumatic domestic violence incidences in adulthood.
As a result, they are likely to develop stress or become abusive. Although babies and very young children lack the capacity to understand the significance of domestic violence, they are likely to learn the undesirable behaviors of their parents. Children often learn through imitation of their significant others. Consequently, they can adopt the violent acts of their fathers without understanding their significance.
The claim that children who opt to stay with their abusive fathers approve their abusive behaviors is misguided. Children can always be manipulated to love their parents through different ways such as giving them gifts (McGee 145). Thus, it is not correct to conclude that children approve their fathers’ violent behaviors by opting to live with them during separation.
The Health Effects on Women
Domestic violence is one of the major causes of poor health among women worldwide. Apart from physical injuries, domestic violence can lead to chronic pain, and psychosomatic disorders. Domestic violence also causes several mental health problems among women. These include anxiety, depression, and stress (WHO).
Mental health problems such as depression often reduce the quality of life and women’s lifespan. They also reduce women’s productivity at work by causing severe mental and physical tiredness. The vulnerability of women to domestic violence increases during their pregnancy because of their perceived helplessness. For instance, a pregnant woman may opt to stay with an abusive partner for fear of losing the financial support that she requires to take care of the infant after delivery.
Domestic violence during pregnancy leads to medical complications and deaths. Several obstetric problems have been linked to domestic violence against women. In particular, women in abusive relationships have high chances of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STI) (WHO). They are also vulnerable to vaginal, cervical and kidney infections (Renzetti and Bergen 156). These infections often lead to complications such as excessive bleeding during pregnancy.
The emotional imbalance associated with abuse during pregnancy often leads to delayed prenatal care and little or no postnatal care among women. This puts the lives of the pregnant women and their unborn babies at risk. The risk of miscarriage also increases with the increase in the severity of mental and emotional health problems such as stress and depression.
The high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections among abused women is attributed to their lack of sexual autonomy (Latchana 114). Some men believe that marriage grants them unlimited access to sex with their spouses. Consequently, they use violence when their wives resist their sexual demands. Unfortunately, lack of sexual autonomy forces women to have unprotected sex with their spouses, thereby exposing them to sexually transmitted infections.
Moreover, lack of sexual autonomy leads to unwanted pregnancies, which in turn necessitate abortion. Women who are not able to afford medical services often procure unsafe abortion, which normally leads to reproductive health problems such destruction of the uterus. Unsafe abortion also leads to death among pregnant women. Generally, domestic violence is likely to cause death if it is repeated over a long time.
Physical injuries are the main causes of domestic violence related fatalities (Enrique 536-537). For instance, strangulation has been found to be the most preferred form of physical violence against women since it leaves little or no incriminating evidence on the victim. Unfortunately, strangulation increases the chances of death significantly.
Some scholars often dispute the severity of the health effects of domestic violence against women. They claim that emotional or psychological torture is the most common form of domestic violence against women (Renzetti and Bergen 172). Proponents of this perspective opine that psychological or emotional harm can hardly cause fatalities.
In addition, emotional problems such as stress are considered to be common in every relationship. This argument is based on the claim that every couple experiences some form of disagreements that may lead to stress (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110). Consequently, the emotional problems caused by domestic violence against women can be addressed through the interventions that are commonly used to reduce normal stress.
Furthermore, women have always been blamed for worsening the health effects of domestic violence by failing to seek medical attention in time (Latchana 186). Women who feel embarrassed to discuss the causes of their injuries hardly seek medical attention. Consequently, their chances of dying because of the injuries caused during domestic violence increase.
The severity of the health effects of domestic violence against women has been illustrated in several studies. In the last three decades, medical research has showed that psychological torture is as harmful as physical injuries to women (Renzetti and Bergen 213). Since domestic violence can occur over a long period, abused women tend to experience very high stress.
Although stress and depression might not cause death directly, they increase the chances of its occurrence. Several studies have established a link between depression and non-communicable diseases such as high blood pressure, stroke, and heart attack (McGee 193).
Consequently, the emotional harm caused by domestic violence can easily lead to death through the aforementioned diseases. The claim that the emotional effects of domestic violence can easily be addressed through readily available interventions is not always true. Psychological therapies can be very ineffective in circumstances where the victim is regularly abused during and after the therapy.
Besides, not all women can access psychiatric services and other interventions to help them cope with the emotional effects of domestic violence. Women should not be blamed for their failure to report domestic violence for fear of being embarrassed (WHO). It is natural to be embarrassed of being in an abusive relationship. Thus, abused women should be encouraged to articulate their plight and to seek medical help in time.
Conclusion
In sum, domestic violence against women is a major problem because of the negative health and child development effects that are associated with it. Domestic violence against women is on the rise because people tend to ignore it. People often ignore the violence because its prevalence is underreported and some of its symptoms are difficult to identify. However, the effects of domestic violence are real and devastating.
In particular, it causes physical, emotional, and reproductive health problems among women. Additionally, domestic violence causes emotional harm to children and increases their chances of being abusive in adulthood. Since the prevalence of domestic violence is on the rise, the suffering of women and children in the hands of unruly men is bound to increase in future. Consequently, the government and the society in general should use legal, social, and cultural interventions to stop domestic violence against women.
Works Cited
Bostock, Jan, Maureen Plumpton and Rebekah Pratt. “Domestic Violence against Women: Understanding Social Processes and Women’s Experiences.” Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 19.2 (2009): 95-110. Print.
Enrique, Gracia. “Unreported Cases of Domestic Violence against Women: Towards an Epidemiology of Social, Tolerance, and Inhibition.” Journal of Epidemiol Community Health 10.7 (2004): 536-537. Print.
Latchana, Karen. Domestic Violence . Edina: ABDO Publishing, 2011. Print.
McGee, Caroline. Childhood Experinces of Domestic Violence. London: Jessica Kingsley Publsihing Group, 2000. Print.
Renzetti, Claire and Raquel Bergen. Violenec against Women. Rowman and Littlefield: London, 2005. Print.
WHO. Violence against Women: Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence against Women. World Health Organization, 13 Oct. 2013. Web.