Introduction
In the age of legal regulation to ensure a sustainable environment, India has been exemplary. Its production of CFCs were completely phased out in August 2008, while its consumption phase out of 1502 tons of CFCs by December 2009. Different types of progress have been made in the area of renewable energy as well. The Indian renewable energy (RE) industry offers strong business prospects to U.S. companies. The market in India for RE business is estimated at 500 million USD and is growing at an annual rate of 15 percent. Major areas of investment include solar energy, wind energy, small hydro projects, waste-to-energy, biomass and alternative fuel (Guha). Overall, India is taking steps to improve the quality of life and mitigate climate change though renewable energies, managing sanitation and water, tending to forestation issues, and reducing ozone depleting substances. While Agenda 21 and the Kyoto Protocol are attempting to make positive changes for the world, various countries have responded in various ways.
Agenda 21
Agenda 21 is a set of guidelines for business, governmental policies, and personal use on ways to implement four other documents including the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, guidelines of principles for management of forests, UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Agenda 21 is a completely non-binding document. Its adoption acknowledges a role in cleaning up the environment, while it was adopted by a consensus. It has effectively pinpointed a problem in excessive poverty and consumption. Its goal was to make changes on all levels, while encompassing seven central themes: quality of life on Earth, efficient use of Earth’s natural resources, the protection of our ‘Global Commons,’ management of human settlements, chemicals and management of waste, sustainable economic growth, and general implementation. The objectives of Agenda 21 are divided into four main categories: social and economic dimensions, conservation and management of resources, strengthening the role of major groups, and means of implementation. The fundamentals of the agenda originated in the Stockholm Conference in 1972 and Our Common Future, published in 1987 by WCED. In 1989, planning of a conference on environment and development started, while realization of the amount of poverty and pollution catalyzed the situation.
The goals of the agenda are to make sure everyone has a sustainable living, eradicate poverty, create healthy and equitable lives for all citizens, and the implementation of reduced consumption patterns. Agenda 21 encouraged developing nations to achieve SD through the promotion of economics with help from developed nations. The reduction of human consumption and production will cater to a global transition to a more efficient and environmentally friendly lifestyle. This targets farmers, manufacturers, and resource industries. It will also create better technology, production and distribution methods, and access to affordable and nutritious food. Other benefits include a switch to renewable resources, the protection of natural areas and biodiversity. Enhancing and improving biotechnology, meanwhile, will cater to the creation of local and global agreements that ensure fair and responsible use of global resources outside of national jurisdiction. This is focused on the atmosphere and oceans, while it is also aimed at industries in development, fishing industries, and chemical manufacturing. The agenda would also like to curb local and regional abuse of common areas. The management of human settlements will create better environmental and developmental management of urban areas. It is aimed at local, state, and national officials as well as local and regional businesses. It has a broad, preventative approach to stop pollution at its source, minimize waste, and make cleaner technology available to all. The chemical and waste management section aims to reduce waste generation, promote recycling waste into reusable materials, finding safe ways of disposal, and elimination of illegal chemical trading. This is aimed at chemical and waste management facilities and businesses, and government officials on all levels.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is named after the city where it was agreed to by negotiators in December 1997. Its goal is to stabilize the atmospheric amounts of greenhouse gases, as such, it aims to require governments to limit their greenhouse gas emissions. According to the protocol, countries are separated into two groups: annex I (forty industrialized countries) and annex II (23 developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries.) The greenhouse gases as mentioned in the Kyoto Protocol is limited to carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, PFC’s, HFC’s, and sulfur hexafluoride. Specifically the goal of the protocol is to reduce these emissions by a certain percentage of 1990 levels by the end of the first commitment period in 2012. This goal is to be reached in emission changes, joint implementation, and clean development mechanisms. Emission trading allows countries that have emission units to spare to sell to countries that are over their limits on emissions. Countries that need to increase their emission allowance can purchase credits from countries that pollute less than others. Joint implementation enables industrialized countries to invest in emission reduction projects (joint implementation projects) with other developed countries. It is an alternative to reducing emissions domestically, while investors receive credits, which then are used to meet its own target emission goal. Host country benefits from foreign investment and technology transfer (Ackerman). A clean development mechanism involves investment in sustainable development projects that reduce emissions in developing countries. It gives industrialized countries flexibility in emission targets and reduction. It also stimulates sustainable development and emission reduction in developing countries. Regarding the ratification of the protocol, 183 parties have ratified it, while industrialized countries agreed to reduce their collective GHG emissions by 5.2% compared to the year 1990. National limitations range from 8% reductions for the European Union and some others to 7% for the United States, 6% for Japan, and 0% for Russia. Specific countries are shown below (Wigley).
- Signed and ratified
- Signed, ratification pending.
- Signed, ratification declined.
- No position.
Implementation by country
Various major countries have had varied reactions to the Kyoto Protocol. Brazil has built an impressive renewable energy industry. Ethanol is already used in 40% of Brazilian automobiles. Brazil has also embraced hydroelectric power as a primary source of the country’s energy. The country aims to reduce carbon emission levels and deforestation rates in the Amazon, while they have already slowed by roughly half since 2004. Spain has lagged in its level of compliance, as it has the biggest increase in greenhouse gas emissions since 1990 out of all European nations. Its emissions of greenhouse gases increased 40 percent since 1990, while average temperatures rose 1.5 degrees Celsius over the past 30 years. A new plan for progress calls for 957 factories to produce a total of 513.6 million tons of carbon dioxide, while the highest emissions quotas were granted to the electrical energy sector and the cement industry. Companies exceeding those limits are expected to turn to Latin America in order to meet their emissions reduction quotas. The energy company Endesa has announced it will invest 3.2 billion dollars in the region.
As mentioned, India has been much more promising in terms of progress. Aside from its most significant progress with regards to environmental sustainability, it is also increasing in economic growth. This will lead to a decrease in poverty and an increase in emissions. As a developing country, it therefore is exempt from mandatory caps on emissions. However, India can “leapfrog” towards cleaner technology in many ways instead of using hazardous machinery as it develops.
China has managed to lift hundreds of millions out of poverty. The price for this, however, has been environmental degradation. China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol, but is not limited because of its status as a developing country. By 2020, the government has set ambitious targets towards solar, wind, hydroelectric and biomass industries.
Germany is the world’s strongest “Green Party.” Federal and local government in Germany has taken steps to promote energy efficiency in buildings, household appliances, and transport through taxes, tax breaks, and government funding. These policies will help Germany reach its goal of reducing the country’s total carbon dioxide emissions by 21 percent by the year 2012, which is significantly higher than the mandatory 8 percent imposed by the United Nations Kyoto Protocol. In Australia, their federal government is helping them meet the Kyoto obligations, including setting a target to reduce emissions by 60 per cent on 2000 levels by 2050. They also would establish a national emissions trading scheme by 2010 and set a 20 percent target for renewable energy by 2020.
Concluding remarks
While not all countries have shown the same level of environmental responsibility as India, Agenda 21 and the Kyoto Protocol are helping to ensure the world does not spiral to environmental catastrophe. Progress and development alike seem to move forward, and hopefully the overall danger never reaches levels which are permanently damaging or responsible for a crisis.
This class has taught me about the dangers of environmental hazards, the regulations to fight them, and about the developmental efforts of many countries. The most important aspects I have learned from this class have been about the effects of world policy on various countries’ legislation and the environment.
References
Ackerman, David. “Global Climate Change – Selected Legal Questions About the Kyoto Protocol”, 2002.
Eilperin, Juliet, “Climate Plan Splits U.S. and Europe”. Washington Post, 2005.
Guha, Ramchandra, India after Gandhi – The History of the World’s Largest Democracy. 1st edition. Picador, 2007.
Krugman, Paul. “Ersatz Climate Policy (requires login)”. New York Times, 2005.
Wigley, Tom “The Kyoto Protocol: CO2, CH4, and climate implications”. Geophys. Res. Lett, 1998.