Introduction
This essay involves the analysis of psychological disorders. To start with, schizophrenia, as a psychological disorder is explored. Its causes and symptoms are evaluated, along with the medication to alleviate the condition. The second part of the essay involves the analysis of two separate psychological cases presented. The first one involves an anxiety disorder, while the second case study entails insomnia. In both cases, this essay seeks to evaluate the disorders from the perspective of a biopsychologist, along with their causes. In addition, the remedial measures through medication have also been explored.
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is the term used to refer to a mental disorder whose characteristics include reality expression and perception abnormalities. The disorder is often characterized by bizarre delusions or paranoia, hallucinations, or even episodes of disorganized thinking and speech, accompanied by profound occupational and social dysfunction (Eysenck, 2004). The onset of the symptoms of Schizophrenia is thought to occur during the young adulthood period, (Green, 2006). Further, it has been estimated that between 0.4 and 0.6 percent of the population are victims of the disorder (Comer, 2005). The basis of a diagnosis for this disorder hinges upon the observed behavior of a patient, along with their self-reported experiences. At the moment, there are no known laboratory tests for the disorder (Green, 2006).
Areas of the brain affected
There are several regions of the brain that are affected by schizophrenia. Nevertheless, the damage to the brain as a result of this disorder seems to target two main areas: the frontal lobe, and the parietal cortex. The frontal lobe is characterized by a majority of the developmental changes amongst teenagers. As such, it has often been referred to as a pruning process, in which excess cells of the brain get ‘pruned’, while the functions of the brain get streamlined up to the age of 25. If a young person gets affected by schizophrenia, this reshaping process has been shown to get extremely awry. In this case, the brain tissue of such young people gets wasted in large quantities, as opposed to the normal healthy pruning process (Comer, 2005).
Seeing that the frontal cortex also happens to be the brain part responsible for restraining us from accomplishing rash things, it follows that due to the ensuing damage to this part of the brain, individuals that have been affected by schizophrenia often tend to behave in quite bizarre ways. As such, it is not unusual for them to react in a manner that is quite exaggerated over small issues, in addition to shouting in public (Comer, 2005). Statistics show that close to 10 percent of patients with schizophrenic conditions usually tend to die as a result of committing suicide.
Another part of the baring that gets affected by schizophrenia is the parietal cortex. This is a part of the brain that is located slightly above the temple area of the ear. This is that part of the brain that is sensitive to taste, sight, touch, and what we hear (Green, 2006). In other words, this happens to be an individual’s center of sensory experience. Once an individual suffers a brain trauma as a result of the schizophrenic condition, they also seem to lose their sensory experiences.
Causal factors
Several factors have been associated with schizophrenia. According to available data as a result of a PET study (Horan & Blanchard, 2003), the suggestion offered is that reduced activation of the frontal lobe at a time when working memory actively seeks to significantly elevate dopamine activity, a hormone that has been associated with neurocognitive deficits amongst schizophrenics. There is also available evidence to support claims that a combination of environmental and genetic factors could also be associated with the development of schizophrenia (Horan & Blanchard, 2003).
According to Pinel (2007), there is a profound heritable element as far as schizophrenia diagnosis is concerned, although stressors of environmental factors are thought to greatly affect its onset (Pinel, 2007). There is a variation about the heredity factor of schizophrenia, with a variation being witnessed as a result of a distinction between, on the one hand, the environment and on the other hand, genetics. Nevertheless, studies carried out on twins reveal elevated heritability levels (Horan & Blanchard, 2003).
Suggestions have also been offered to the effect that the schizophrenia disorder is characterized by complex inheritance, with the possibility that several genes may associate to result in a schizophrenic risk. Alternatively, the separate elements may happen, resulting in a diagnosis (52). Prenatal causal factors of schizophrenia are usually believed to associate during the initial stages of neurodevelopment. As such, this process enhances the risk of such individuals being diagnosed with schizophrenia later in life (Harrison & Owen, 2003). There is an association between, on the one hand, urban environment dwellers and on the other hand, an elevated risk of developing schizophrenia (Harrison & Owen, 2003).
In this case, being disadvantaged socially is regarded as a risk factor, and this entails also poverty (43,), as well as migration as a result of racial discrimination, social diversity poor housing conditions or unemployment, and family dysfunction (Green, 2006). Trauma and abuse during childhood have also been associated with the development of this disorder, at later stages in life (Green, 2006). Even though close to half of the patients that are diagnosed with schizophrenia happens to abuse either alcohol or drugs, nevertheless it has not been easy to provide a clear causal connection between schizophrenia on the one hand, and drug abuse on the other hand.
Associated symptoms
A person who has been diagnosed with schizophrenia usually exhibits such symptoms as delusions, auditory hallucinations, or even episodes of disorganized thinking and speech, accompanied by profound occupational and social dysfunction. This could range from subject flow and train of thought loss, with the result that sentences could bear a loose connection concerning meaning. In severe cases, incoherence, often regarded as word salad, tend to occur. Social isolation is not uncommon too, for a variety of reasons (Green, 2006).
Social cognition impairment bears a correlation with schizophrenia. There have also been reported cases of an individual with the disorder going mute, exhibiting agitation without purposes, or remaining in positions that are quite bizarre. It is worthy of note that a diagnosis of schizophrenia may not be arrived at based on a single sign. According to the current psychoses classification, symptoms of this condition are required to have been exhibited by a patient for about a month in not less than six months “of disturbed functioning” (Green, 2006).
The neural basis
Studies based on brain imaging technologies (for example, PET and fMRI) have been carried out to assess the functional differences in the activity of the brain, with the results indicating that the main differences often occur in the hippocampus, frontal; and temporal lobes (Eysenck, 2004). In addition, these differences also bear an association with neurocognitive deficits, and which are commonly associated with schizophrenia disorder. Functional magnetic resonance imaging, along with other technologies of brain imaging, makes it possible to study differences in the activity of the brain.
More emphasis has been placed on the role of dopamine in the brain’s mesolimbic pathway. This kind of focus mainly came about following an accidental finding that phenothiazines, a group of drugs that have been implicated with the blockage of dopamine function, were also able to reduce psychotic symptoms. This study was also in support of claims that amphetamines, responsible for triggering dopamine release, also have the potential to “exacerbate the psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia” (Eysenck, 2004).
Appropriate drug therapies
Biochemical abnormalities, on the whole, are significantly involved in the exhibition of schizophrenic symptoms. To be more specific, claims abound to the effect that a significant number of neurons within the brain of schizophrenic patients appear quite over-sensitive to dopamine. If such an argument is authentic, it would therefore be expected that drugs capable of blocking dopamine should ideally alleviate the schizophrenic symptoms. Phenothiazines is one group of drugs that have proved capable of “blocking dopamine at the synapses” (Eysenck, 2004). What this means is that the blocking action occurs “between the axon of one of the neurons and the dendrite of another neuron (Eysenck, 2004). In addition, Phenothiazinbes and some of their derivatives (for example, chlorpromazine) have proved quite effective in alleviating schizophrenic symptoms, and these include thought disorders and hallucinations. Additionally, these phenothiazine drugs associated with copious dopamine blockade have also been seen to result in “the most beneficial effects” (Eysenck, 2004).
Case 1
The symptoms exhibited by Tom are those of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). Seeing that persons suffering from GAD often tend to anticipate disaster and catastrophize, with an over-concern over such daily issues as money, health, family problems, and death, this results in an excessive worry on the part of a patient, and this has the potential to interfere with their day-to-day activities. On the whole, GAD entails worry and anxiety that is both unrelenting and excessive. Such a high anxiety level leads to a difficult normal life, not to mention the difficulty in relaxation. So that a formal diagnosis for GAD may be made, such symptoms must be exhibited persistently for not less than 6 months (Pinel, 2007).
Medication for GAD has proved to be effective. Nevertheless, the recommendation is that medication is used as a temporal measure, while the therapy should be the main concern for long-term success. Currently, three categories of medication have been prescribed for GAD. One of the drugs that are considered to be quite safe for treating this disorder is Buspirone, whose brand name is Buspar. The benefit of this drug is that it is neither addictive nor sedative, unlike benzodiazepines. Nevertheless, a negative impact of this drug is that despite its capacity to ‘take off the edge’, nevertheless, it fails to eliminate the anxiety. As anti-anxiety drugs, Benzodiazepines are fast-acting (normally between 30 minutes and one hour). And so a rapid relief is their main benefit. However, the drug is not without serious drawbacks (Pinel, 2007). Psychological and physical dependence are not unusual following several weeks of usage. In this regard, these drugs are often recommended if the anxiety is characterized by severe and paralyzing episodes. There are several antidepressants recommended for treating GAD. However, these fail to provide immediate relief. Besides, their full effects are only felt after six weeks. Several antidepressants have also been associated with causing nausea and sleep problems (Comer, 2005).
Case 2
Mary could be suffering from short-term insomnia, which often lasts for about one month. Usually, short-term insomnia comes about as a result of a temporary situation in the life of an individual, for example, stressful events, or disturbances in the environment (extreme temperatures and noise). A reaction to stress or change has been identified as “one of the most common causes of short-term and transient insomnia” (Pinel, 2007), a condition often termed adjustment sleep disorder. Precipitating factors to this disorder could be surgery or injury or acute illness. In such cases, normal sleep almost always returns when the individual recovers from the event or becomes acclimated to the new situation.
Ambien, Rozerem, Lunesta, and Sonata are some of the medications that are oftentimes used in the treatment of insomnia. The benefits of some of these drugs (for example, Lunesta) work very fast, thereby inducing sleep within a short time. Evidence shows that other drugs like Rozerem may be used for longer periods without resulting in either dependence or abuse. However, there are other drugs like Benzodiazepines that have been shown to cause the user to fall asleep even during the day, in addition to their becoming dependent on these (Comer, 2005).
Conclusion
This essay was concerned with the analysis of psychological disorders. The first part involved an analysis of schizophrenia. In this case, its causes, symptoms, and medication were explored. On the other hand, the second part of the essay involved two separate case studies. The first one involved an anxiety disorder, while the second one was an insomnia disorder. In both of these cases, this writer sought to better understand each of these cases from the perspective of a biopsychologist. In light of this, the causes of these disorders were explored, in addition to drug interventions and the associated positive or negative side effects.
References
Comer, R. J. (2005). Fundamentals of abnormal psychology (4th Ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Eysenck, M. W. (2004). Psychology: an international perspective. New York: Francis & Taylor.
Green, M.F (2006). “Cognitive impairment and functional outcome in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder”. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67 (Suppl 9): 3–8.
Harrison, P. J & Owen, M. J (2003). “Genes for schizophrenia? Recent findings and their pathophysiological implications”. The Lancet 361 (9355): 417–19.
Horan, W. P., & Blanchard, J.J (2003). “Emotional responses to psychosocial stress in schizophrenia: the role of individual differences in affective traits and coping”. Schizophrenia research 60 (2-3): 271–83.
Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.