Introduction
Architecture in many cases is affected by several factors. They include social, political, and historical contexts, environment, and cultural traditions that permeate a specific locality or region. While colonial settlements had yet to determine the type of architectural renditions and principles applicable to the new settlements, New England settlers did not mimic the English classical revivalism in the New World. Instead, architecture was dependent on the environmental elements as well. Rexford Newcomb in Regionalism in American Architecture cited how the environment broadly influenced New England settlements. While the architecture bore traces of European traditions, distinct characteristics developed in deference to the intrinsic qualities of the new settlements (275).
In New England, the extreme environment made it necessary to alter traditional architecture. Most of the colonists came from rural areas where timber construction was widely practiced. Finding the New World with abundant lumber. However, rural England’s tradition of incorporating half-timber” construction and wattle and daub” filled interstices or rough mud bricks of clay and straw called cats”” was deemed unsuitable for New England climate (276). The climate hence altered the architectural traditions of the settlers and created new ones. For instance, the New England settlers substituted clapboards for the exterior to protect the houses from wet weather. Compact plans evolved to accommodate different placements of chimneys. The central chimney and the emanation of other fireplaces of the room from it made the structure sturdier. The design later accommodated a hallway on either side of the room giving way to a more symmetrical layout (276). The design also eventually included classical details and proportions that altered the drab and austere design into the more classic Georgian architecture (276).
The new architecture likewise accommodated the new social and economic systems the emerged in the new settlements. In Maryland and Virginia, the dominant architectural character of plantation houses favored formal and balanced plans. Taking into consideration the living arrangements of the slaves, the plantations either had individual cabins for the slaves and their families within the property or long ranges of quarters” that housed the slaves (277). In Virginia, service departments were separate from the main house. The examples cited were only some of the architectural expressions dictated by the social order at that time (278).
David Hackett Fischer in an interview qualified region as a cultural place where people [shared] a sense of themselves, who form a bond with one another and also with the place.” (The Power of Regionalism: A Conversation with David Hackett Fischer”) He further noted how regions can [reinvent or reimagine] themselves through time. But at the same time, regions have a fundamental foundation in a cultural reality that is not merely imagined or invented.” (The Power of Regionalism: A Conversation with David Hackett Fischer”). Taking a cue from Fischer’s remarks, regionalism identifies the unique characteristics of a place. In some ways, the emergence of regional identities emerged as a consequence of isolation. But they could also be a consequence of interaction with other cultures. Fischer again cited the New England case where the economic activities spurred the emergence of regional identity through its engagement with people.”(The Power of Regionalism: A Conversation with David Hackett Fischer”).
The Context of Regionalism
Louise Fawcett in her article Exploring Regional Domains: A Comparative History of Regionalism defined regionalism as a theory where states and non-state actors coordinate and cooperate to attain common goals (433). Regionalism also went beyond the scope of geographical boundaries, as people with common cultural leanings tend to converge. The aims of regionalism aim to promote a sense of regional awareness or community (soft regionalism), through consolidating regional groups and networks, to the pan- or subregional groups formalized by interstate arrangements and organizations (hard regionalism).” (433).
The resurgence of regionalism movements in the 1920’s America was a response to the sense of malaise and cultural crisis” (Wilson x). Lewis Mumford found in New England’s villages, the opportunity to for a proposed reconstruction of contemporary urban and industrial life.” (Wilson x) By the late 1930s, regionalism assumed a more utopian position where advocates believed that the ideology attained preeminence through education. But the ideology also came with the need to redistribute wealth and property (Wilson xi). The concept of regionalism declined in the fifties. The decade during World War II discouraged divisiveness and people were more inclined to pursue consensus. Regionalism was construed as divisive and outdated in most cases. Regionalism in the American social and political sphere did not disappear entirely as it was a prime mover in politics and helped shape the cultural values of specific regions.
”Anna BocheA ska-SkaA ecka in Regionalism in Architecture of a Village as Factor Affecting Behavior of Local Identity and Individual Cultural Features defined regional architecture as a collection of natural and cultural elements combined by their traditional relation which are outstanding in a given area”. Generally, this is the result of two powerful forces: nature and culture.” Steven Moore in Technology, Place and the Nonmodern Thesis differentiated regionalist architecture from regional architecture. Regional architecture is an isolated craft tradition that adapts to local ecological conditions” while Regionalist architecture is critical of an architectural order that claims universal application.” (132).
Tzonis & Lefaivre proposed five categories of regionalism beginning from the eighteenth century Whig Party’s reaction to absolute monarchy rule. Tzonis & Lefaivre cited the posturing of the Whig party against monarchy by advocating cultivation of landscape that adhered to natural topography and flora.” (Moore 132) It was a rejection of the rigid classicism and formality that the monarchy advocated. The second classification was romantic regionalism where it continued the anti-monarchist tradition yet employing temporal strategies. The romantics associated the cultural elements of architecture with nature (132). The third category explored postromantic regionalism where it imposed neo-tribal regimentation in contrast to the libertarian concepts of romantic regionalism (132). This category of regionalism excluded others while enforcing the spatial purity of the race.” (132) The fourth category referred to as commercial regionalism departed from Hitler’s and Himmler’s exclusivity and racist approach to regionalism architecture. Also known as the architecture of tourism,” architectural forms and choices were largely dictated by the commercial value of the region and market forces (132). Finally, the fifth category is critical regionalism. Critical regionalism, according to Tzonis & Lefaivre should evoke meaning and thought rather than emotion and excitement – that architecture should evoke critical consideration of the cultural and ecological origins of construction practices rather than feed the folk scenographic fantasies that allow them to withdraw into familiarity (Moore 133).
Critical regionalism emerged in the 1980’s describing mainly the type of architecture that engaged its particular geographical and cultural circumstances in deliberate, subtle, and vaguely politicized ways.” (Eggener 228) Critical regionalism aims to reflect and serve the limited constituencies” in which it was grounded and cultivate a contemporary place-oriented culture.” (228). Kenneth Frampton described critical regionalism as a reaction to global modernization that continued to undermine all forms of domestic and traditional cultures. As a form of resistance, critical regionalism subverted the universal technological norm,” the effects of global capitalism, international style architecture, and the sense of placelessness that these fostered.” (229) Critical regionalism is not a style or motif but more of a process to articulate architecture according to a specific location and situation.
Regionalism and its Relevance to Architecture
Graham Ross in Out of Place cited the need to emphasize distinction among different urban centers to counter the homogenizing effects of globalization and capitalism. Regionalism, in this respect, is a counter rebuttal to the increasing standardization of space that has caused many urban centers’ disharmony and incongruity with local cultures. Michael Hough forwarded a Regionalism imperative that, is founded on natural processes and the native landscape recognizes the holistic view of man as part of the regional ecosystem and requires an understanding of the essence and structure of the regional landscape (Ross).
Regionalism, in this case, countermanded the rigors imposed by harmonization and globalization that devalued cultural identities that gave distinction to places and spaces. Regionalism attempts to restore the intrinsic cultural identities of places. Barring the propensity for regionalism to be too isolationist and centric, the presence of regionalism in architecture preserves the historical and cultural values of a place or region.
Concurrent to shaping the regional identity of a place or region is the presence of vernacular architecture to mitigate the limitations of regionalism. Vernacular architecture in this case is also shaped by several factors. They include the determinant of nature (biophysical forces and climate). the culture and history are unique to each place and time. the role of a central authority whose decisions impose an organizational structure on the landscape.” (Ross) The loss of regional identity forebodes more serious consequences associated with rapid urbanization, globalization, and capitalism. Hough identified factors that eroded regional identity. They include:
”The move away from rooted communities tied to the land to the current paradigm of the transient, mobile society of the information age…man’s increasing separation from, and control of, nature from the Industrial Age onward has resulted in the imposition of man’s will on the regional landscape with such force that the effects have created an environment which tends toward the bland and the indistinct” (Ross).
In Lewis Mumford’s essay on Henry Hobson Richardson, he described the essence of Richardson’s regional architecture as composed in such a fashion that it cannot be divorced from its landscape without losing something of its practical or its esthetic value — or both together.” (128) Regionalism, according to Mumford, was the ability of the designer to embrace local cultural characteristics, nature, and new technological developments without losing any of the intrinsic qualities of the place (129) Richardson was able to synthesize the trappings of modernity with the vernacular. Richardson was able to articulate the different elements to achieve a unity and completeness that few architects in the nineteenth century possessed.” (130).
Anthony Alofsin in Constructive Regionalism described regionalism essentially had contradicted the modernist approach to architecture. Regionalism responds [s] to local color, materials, and customs. it would embrace traditions and transforms traditions. it would be wed to its setting, in either rural or urban landscape. it would foster craft and push the limits of technology. it would speak to the individual search for the universal (4).
Designers embracing regionalism would be denied personal glorification. Instead, it creates buildings devoid of personal attributes, hence avoiding hierarchy or elitism because the building becomes a universal attribute of the locale. Regionalism aims to attain universality but sans the principles of universal style. Regionalism allows architects to create designs that amplified craftsmanship yet do not destabilize cultural values.
Today’s homogenized architecture as a consequence of globalization and capitalism needs to reconsider regional forms and values to establish a distinction between places but without fostering isolationism. The universal attributes in regional architecture transcend such possibilities. Unity in diversity in this case is achievable without having to endure the monotony of inappropriate architecture.
Two Examples of Architectural Regionalism in Different Contexts
Henry Hobson Richardson – Foremost American Regional Architect
Lewis Mumford described Henry Hobson Richardson as a pioneer in regional architecture. Richardson went to Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris in 1860 but was unable to complete his training in architecture due to lack of family support during the US Civil War (Henry Hobson Richardson”). The beginnings of Richardson as an architect were unremarkable until he designed the Trinity Church in Boston. His first buildings were primarily inspired by the primitive medieval architecture of Syria and Southern France (Mumford 118).
Trinity Church, located in Back Bay, Boston, Massachusetts was considered one of the best designs of Richardson in the tradition of Richardsonian Romanesque style. The building had a clay roof, polychromy, rough stone, heavy arches, and a massive tower.” (Trinity Church, Boston”) The building built from 1872-1877 showcased the maturity of Richardson as an architect. The building had a modified Greek cross plan with four arms extending outwards to the central tower with a height of 211 feet (Trinity Church, Boston”). The interiors were adorned with large murals executed by American artists (21,500 square feet). John La Farge was commissioned to execute the colorful murals. While Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris designed the four stained glass windows(Trinity Church, Boston”).
There were four attributes why Richardson was considered a regional architect. First, he primarily used indigenous materials in many of his buildings. For the New England buildings, New England quarries provided Milford granite, brown sandstone, and Longmeadow sandstone.” (Alofsin 2) Richardson transformed white-walled farmhouses with new wide windows to incorporate both new American requirements and environmental considerations. Richardson used local color generously in many of his buildings including sumac, red oak, sweet fern, lichened rock, pine tree, and butternut (Alofsin 2). Many of his works reflected transformed New England traditions only Richardson could aptly interpret and execute.
”[H]e modified its Puritanic austerities: he gave to its buildings a color that they lacked: a color derived from its native granites and sandstones, from weathered shingles and from the autumnal tints of sumach and red oak that linger longer in the countryside of the North than any other colors” (Mumford 124).
This only showed how well Richardson knew about New England. His colorful renditions veered away from the lackluster executions often seen in older, austere white and gray houses. These transformations continued to establish traditional woodworking yet the introduction of color indigenous to the New England landscape made the creations uniquely New England in character.
Richardson was successful at settling the conflict between the Utilitarian and the Romantic (Mumford 126). However, Richardson did not end his creativity with regional forms – he was searching for a universal theme to his works (128). As an architect, Richardson was confronted with new developments in technology and machines. He realized that his architecture must harmonize with the ever-spreading forms of the machine: therefore a certain economy, a certain spareness, a certain rigor were needed even in his most traditional structures.” (129) Richardson’s narrative on his quest for universality in his architecture could be found in the way he utilized indigenous elements and combined them with contemporary considerations such as modernity and technological advances. Richardson straddled both the old and the new to achieve harmony and an identity uniquely attributed to New England.
The Trinity Church in Boston exemplified the architect’s search for an ultimate expression where synthesis among urban landscape, locale and the traditions of architecture itself” was achieved (Alofsin 2). Richardson, when he died at the age of 48 in 1886, he left a legacy for future legendary architects such as Sullivan, Buffington, and Root as successors (Alofsin 2).
Oswaldo Guayasamin’s Capilla del Hombre – Universal Context
Ecuadoran artist, Oswaldo Guayasamin, born in Quito in 1919 was considered the most prominent international Ecuadoran artist until he died in 1999. A major proponent of social realism, Guayasamin, like many other predecessors, explored the social and political struggles of 20th century Ecuadoran. Most of his works primarily offered a coherent and organic view of life in Ecuador, Latin America, and the world in general.” (Handelsman 136) His art was devoted to social protest and advocated social justice for the majority of the oppressed in Latin America. Moreover, his works promoted human rights and called for the recognition of Latin American indigenous origins (Morales). An ardent supporter of the Cuban revolution and Fidel Castro, the artist envisioned a future where social justice was attainable (Handelsman 137). As a tribute to the Latin American struggle, many of his paintings spoke of the anguish, anger, violence, dreams, sacrifice, and triumph of the Latin American. The artist dubbed his collections as Pintar para indignant.” (136).
Before his death in 1999, he was finishing a final masterpiece called Capilla del Hombre, or Chapel of the Man. The architectural and sculptural work continued to revel in the history of the American man pursuing themes ranging from pre-colonial history until contemporary periods. The last masterpiece of Guayasamin, completed three years after his death is both an art museum and monument located in Quito. The architecture of the Capilla mimicked a pre-Columbian pyramid made of stone and overlooking Quito from the Bellavista suburbs (Gill). The interior holds a collection of paintings depicting the development of the Latin American man from pre-Columbian periods until the present (Gill). Typical of the Guayasamin technique was the use of grotesque figures mostly denouncing the atrocities of man against man.
The structure has an area of 3,600 square meters built on two levels (Architecture”). The Chapel of Man has three sections. The third is crowned with a truncated cupola. Each of the sections depicted different periods in the history and evolution of Latin American. They were Huacaynam (the road of tears, in Quechua), the age of wrath, the age of tenderness.” (Unesco Director-General Expresses Deep Sorrow at the Death of the Painter Oswaldo Guayasamin” )The murals represented what was America before the arrival of the Spaniards: its Gods and symbols, his cosmogony, their architecture, its music, dances and dresses, their animals and plants.” (Capilla del Hombre”).
The architecture is reminiscent of pre-Columbian Andean architecture. Ecuador, however, had very few examples of the legacy left by pre-Columbian architecture when compared to other Latin Americans. Nevertheless, the contemporary sculptural-architectural piece attempted to preserve centuries-old architectural legacy but houses artworks dealing with very universal themes of social justice and human rights. In essence, from the point of view of the architectural value of the building, the Capilla exhorted the uniqueness of Latin American architecture.
Viewing the interiors and contents of the building, they promoted universal themes found in many cultures all over the world. On the exterior, the artist adopted designs unique to his cultural roots – the materials used, the pyramid structure, and the composition of spaces. However, these were meant to house works of art originally depicting social justice advocacy and resistance to injustice and violence in Ecuador and other Latin American nations. The artist remained faithful to design traditions where it was deeply rooted in the country’s social history.” (Handelsman 141).
In Huacaynam (Path of Tears”), the artist had a series of visions including the mestizaje” or mixed race, both indigenous and African-American origins. Regionalism, in this case, is evident, as the portraits were attributed to the Latin Americans of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia (Artwork: Huacaynan”). Guayasamin gained international recognition precisely because his social realist themes underscoring the Latin American situation took on a broader scope. Elsewhere in the world, the themes of social injustice and oppression also permeate.
Overall, the art of Guayasamin straddled the realms of regionalism and universal themes on social justice. The artist made effective use of elements indigenous to his culture to forward universal ideas. The artist articulated ideas of social justice, human rights, triumphs, sorrows, and others effectively that at some point, the regional character had blended with universal traditions. The artist, using indigenous artistic traditions made it known to the world of his cultural roots attempting to reach a broader audience. The Capilla del Hombre is a fine example of a cultural expression espousing both regional and universal contexts.
Conclusion
The two individuals cited as examples of regional architects may be non-contemporaries but both Richardson and Guayasamin sought universality in their designs. Although Guayasamin was Ecuadoran, his architectural translations did not deviate from the traditions of regionalism. It only shows that regionalism was not an exclusive realm of the American architects. Like Richardson, Guayasamin went beyond the polemics of regionalism and created a dialogue between the traditional and modern.
Henry Hobson Richardson was a forerunner in regionalism architecture and he had set precedence for future architects to emulate. Richardson’s most significant contribution was to recreate the cultural context of New England, for example in stone while remaining appropriate for contemporary applications.
In many ways, both architects transcended the problem of synthesis between the old and the new. Richardson never abandoned the vernacular and indigenous despite executing modern buildings. Guayasamin, on the other hand, did not ignore the cultural meanings attached to art and architecture. He made it known to the world the social realities of Latin American nations and was successful at communicating to a broader audience using universally acceptable paradigms.
Works Cited
Alofsin, Anthony, “Constructive Regionalism,” (2005). Web.
“Artwork: Huacaynan,” 2007. Web.
“Architecture.” Web.
“Capilla del Hombre,” 2007. Web.
Eggener, Kenneth L., “Placing Resistance: A Critique of Critical Regionalism,” Journal of Architectural Education, 55(4)(2002), 228-237.
Fawcett, Louise, “Exploring Regional Domains: A Comparative History of Regionalism,” International Affairs,80(3)(2004), 429-446.
Gill, Nicholas, “Capilla del Hombre: Guayasamin’s Masterpiece, “ (2007). Web.
Handelsman, Michael, Culture, and Customs of Ecuador, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000.
“Henry Hobson Richardson,” 2007.
Moore, Steven A., “Technology, Place, and the Nonmodern Thesis,” Journal of Architectural Education, 54(3)(2001), 130–139.
Morales, Judith S., “An Eruption of Tenderness, from Guayasamin to Fidel,” 2007. Web.
Mumford, Lewis (ed), “The Regionalism of Richardson, “ in Roots of Contemporary American Architecture: A Series of Thirty-Seven Essays Dating from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present New York: Grove Press, 1959, 117-131.
Newcomb, Rexford, “Regionalism in American Architecture,” in Regionalism in America, Merrill G. Jensen (ed), Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1951, 273-296.
Ross, Graham, “Out of Place,” 2007.
Bocheńska-Skałecka, Anna, “Regionalism in Architecture of a Village as Factor Effecting Behavior of Local Identity and Individual Cultural Features,” (2005). Web.
“The Power of Regionalism: A Conversation with David Hackett Fischer,” 2007. Web.
“Trinity Church, Boston,” 2007.
“Unesco Director-General Expresses Deep Sorrow at the Death of the Painter Oswaldo Guayasamin,” 2007. Web.
Wilson, Charles Reagan (ed), The New Regionalism: Essays and Commentaries. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi,1998.