Introduction
There has been heightened attention on the processes of learning from a psychological perspective. This is because there is need to optimize learning opportunities in order to gain maximally from the education system, which is coupled with shortage of time and other resources.
Many researchers have taken different angles of approach in addressing this issue. Whilst some are taking a broad approach by considering many variables, others are addressing specific variables. In order to come up with a concise and efficient method or model of learning effective for students, analysis, and review of these different researches becomes important.
This paper deliberates on different suggestions proposed by different researchers regarding the best ways to study. It offers a rigorous analysis and review of their work from which, best study methods are proposed. I hope that learners find this paper very nourishing in optimizing their learning skills.
Study-Test Combination
Assessment tests in education are as old as the education system itself. Since time immemorial, tests have always been an important way of determining the degree of understanding of learned content. Many psychologists appreciate the importance of tests in enhancing cognition in learners.
Tests provide means by which the brain allocates addresses to specific problems. Therefore, it becomes easy to retrieve the information stored in these memory allocations when similar problem is encountered. However “learning through testing” needs more specific and concise approach in order to reap its full benefits. It is claimed “a combination of study and tests is more effective than spending the same amount of time reviewing the material” (Rohrer & Pashler, 2010 p. 2).
This is in contrast to what many learners and learning institutions do. It is recommended that learning and reviewing of materials be sandwiched with tests. Similarly, continuous assessment in learning institutions should be practiced. This way learning process is improved and content retention enhanced.
It has also been observed that the type of test determines quality of learning process and the rate of retention of learned material. Tests requiring recalling of learned materials are more beneficial as compared to multiple-choice tests. Recalling tests have been found to improve information retrieving process.
Spanning the Learning Period
It does not come by surprise that conventional learning consists of short bursts of intense learning. This is because time, among other resources is very much limited. While this may seem like a solution to prevailing learning challenges, it undermines the very essence of learning. According to Rohrer & Pashler “if a given amount of study time is distributed or spaced across multiple sessions rather than massed into a single session, performance on a delayed final test is improved” (Rohrer & Pashler 2010, p. 3).
When learning is done in a short spasm two main issues worth consideration arise. First, cognition is hampered since there is hardly any time to process all the learned materials within the given time. Secondly, the span in which such materials can be recalled is greatly reduced.
Tests done to determine the effect of spacing learning period suggest that, relatively longer time spans enhance cognition and memory as well. It is therefore highly recommended that learning should not be taken in short bursts but rather distributed over a reasonable period in order to achieve a long lasting result. When spanning is coupled with continuous assessments, the overall cognition results are even more astounding.
Interleaving
The technique of interleaving refers to the idea of mixing up different pieces of information that needs to be learned. In conventional mode of learning, similar learning objects are presented in sequence such that learner gets more exposure and experience with these learning objects. Although this may seem to be a good way of improving cognition, it does not offer a long lasting learning effect since the materials are much more likely to be forgotten after a short period.
In order to harness the logic potential of the brain, the interleaving concept needs to be incorporated in the learning process. Learning should begin by understanding different concepts, which are then mixed up. This makes it possible to identify and comprehend the different relationships that exist between the different concepts.
Interleaving would certainly improve the learning process in mathematics. This is because different mathematical concepts are dependent. Additionally, mathematical concepts build up stepwise from simple to concepts that are more complex.
Interleaving enhances understanding and logical thinking of the concepts. Consequently, this makes it possible to process similar or different problems in the future. Learners should endeavor to interleave different concepts rather than taking them as independent blocks of concepts. In fact, the power of logical reasoning is more powerful than memory.
Conventional learning common in the field of mathematics and sciences present learning as a block and later present assessment tests at the end of these blocks. Whereas this may enhance understanding of that particular concept, it is important to incorporate previously learned concepts with the newly learned concept. This way, previously learned concepts will be more understood and the new concept will be easily understood since underlying foundation has already been recalled.
Testing Effect
Rohrer & Pashler presented their argument into how test enhances learning by considering type of tests and test-learning combination as the main variables of their argument. However, Roediger & Karpicke presented quite similar argument but using “test timing” as the main variable.
In their test concept, “phenomenon of testing effect” they addressed the issue of timing of tests in the learning process in order to maximize the possible benefits. It is a common phenomenon in most education systems to have distinct time for learning and time for doing exams. However, many psychologists who claim that it hinders the process of continuous learning, which is more effective in the end, have criticized such setting.
Roediger & Karpicke suggest that tests should be well distributed throughout the learning period. In fact “If students are tested on material and successfully recall or recognize it, they will remember it better in the future than if they had not been tested” (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006, p. 2).
It is important to consider the best way to do the timing of the tests for effective learning. They did a study in which they determined, among other factors the relationship between timing of the test and rate of retention.
The overall results showed that short simple tests almost immediately after content has been read followed by more comprehensive test after considerable period greatly increased content retention capacity. It is thus suggested that tests should be incorporated in learning and most importantly done immediately and after the learning period. This will greatly enhance the learning process and the content learned will be retained for a long duration of time.
Spaced Content Presentation
Clustered presentation of concepts and learning content has been greatly criticized by Seabrook, Brown & Solity. According to their research and study, distributed learning sessions realize better content retention as compared to clustered learning. They claim, “Effectiveness of teaching may be improved by increasing the degree to which lessons are distributed” (Seabrook, Brown & Solity, 2005, p. 1).
Spaced presentation calls for distribution of learning content over a number of lessons as opposed to presenting the whole content in a single sitting. For instance, short bursts of learning usually common in conferences, workshops, and seminars may only be retained for a short while. This can be compared to a concept that has been learned and developed throughout a given semester. In the latter case, learned concepts are stored in the memory for a very long time.
It is indeed possible to argue that it is easier to comprehend and recall content that has been presented severally as compared to content presented once. According to the phenomenon, they term as “spacing effect” more memory will be allocated to sets of information that is consistently presented. From this theory, it can be deduced that learners need to configure their learning programs such that learning is not clustered.
Learning should be taken as a continuous process in which new ideas build up stepwise in well-spaced learning periods. Instead of taking compact five-hour study sessions, the same can be divided into, say, five short learning sessions with each session being a buildup of the previous session.
Mixing Mathematical Problems
Mathematics is arguably one of the most difficult subjects in the world. In fact, countries such as U.S have devised proficiency assessment for mathematics through the no child left behind act (NCLB). The importance of mathematics cannot be underestimated and actually, robust approach to learning mathematics is needed. Taylor dedicated an article in discussing ways in which learning mathematics can be enhanced.
Taylor suggests a unique methodology of addressing issues in learning mathematics. Mathematical problems and tests should be shuffled up rather than presenting specific set of problems for a given learned concept. Rohrer & Pashler share the same sentiments in their interleaving theory.
However, Taylor’s idea departs from the interleaving theory by specifically addressing how to mix the mathematical problems and tests as compared to interleaving which suggests mixing of concepts while learning. The results of Taylor’s study favored “mixed grill” testing format over the conventional method.
He claims “when practice problems relating to a given topic are spaced across multiple practice sets, a student who fails to understand a lesson (or fails to attend a lesson) will still be able to solve most of the problems within the following practice set”(Taylor, 2007, p. 15).
The underlying cognitive psychology theory is that mixed problems prompts the brain to recall previously learned concepts and uses them to build up new ways of solving new problems. This prompts us to deduce that the best way to learn mathematics is not taking concepts as independent. Mixing up problems from previously learned concepts with newly, learned concepts will go a long way in enhancing learning mathematics and improves retention capacity (Taylor, 2007).
Overlearning
The concept of overlearning is perhaps the most widely used learning approach. Although ubiquitous, overlearning approach certainly is counterproductive when long-term returns are considered. It may appear, as subject mastery when something is repeatedly done after the concept has been understood. Although many proponents of overlearning propose that it enhances retention, other research indicates otherwise.
When long-term retention is the primary objective, then overlearning becomes counterproductive. After doing a rigorous study on relationship between overlearning and retention Rohrer et al found out that “overlearned 10 items were more often recalled than the poorly learned 20 items when participants were tested 1 week after learning, but this benefit disappeared by 4 weeks” (Rohrer et al., 2005, p. 10).
It is thus safe to conclude that learning should be moderated such that overlearning does not occur. Learners should aim for perfection and mastery of the subjects in question. This will have a long lasting content retention effect and hence more beneficial.
Conclusion
Learning is truly a multivariate concept that demands different ways of approach in order to harness the limited resources in learning. As it has been discussed, wide varieties of approaches to learning do exist. Testing should be incorporated in the learning process to enhance understanding of the concepts.
Spaced rather than block presentation of learning content should be encouraged as it results to longer lasting retention. For mathematicians, mixed up mathematical problems are highly encouraged as it makes it possible to build up new concepts on top of the old ones hence better understanding and retention of learned concepts.
Although overlearning may seem to be a good learning approach, it is not recommended for learners aiming for long term content retention results. When all this approaches are incorporated in, learning profound results are certain.
References
Roediger, H & Karpicke, J. (2006). Test-Enhanced Learning. Psychological Science, 17: 249.
Rohrer et al. (2005). The Effect of Overlearning on Long-Term Retention. Appl. Cognit. Psychol. 19: 361–374.
Rohrer, D and Pashler, H. (2010). Recent Research on Human Learning Challenges Conventional Instructional Strategies. Educational Researcher, 39: 406
Seabrook, R & Brown, G. (2005). Distributed and Massed Practice: From Laboratory to Classroom. Appl. Cognit. Psychol. 19: 107–122.
Taylor, D. (2007). The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning. Instr Sci, 35:481–498