Chinese Students in Irish Higher Education Institutions Essay

Introduction

There has been general increase in demand for higher education in the recent past. Changes in social, political and economic aspects in various parts of the world have a significant effect on demand for higher education. For a long time in history, education has been viewed as key to success. Education not only enables people to relate smoothly but it is also a drive to development. Significance of education to development was confirmed by inclusion of education as one of the Millennium Development Goals. China is one of the countries that have recorded high demand for higher education in the recent past. Reforms in China that started in 1970s have led to high demand for formal education. Many people in China are enthusiastic over education. Thousands of Chinese go out to western countries in search for higher education. Chinese students in Irish higher education institutions have been increasing day by day. Despite of increase in Chinese students in Irish higher education institutions, little is done to address unique needs of these students. The literature review address the issue with aim of proposing management practice that would attract Chinese students to Irish higher education institutions.

China Economy and Globalization

China has been one of the countries with highest economic growth in the recent past. China economic reforms since 1978 have brought significant change on China’s position in global economy. Economic development in China can be attributed to various aspects, which included foreign trade, foreign investment and migration (Yao, p. 114). China economic development has contributed highly to globalization. The economic reforms that were initiated by Deng Xiaoping strongly depended on economic globalization. Deng Xiaoping understood the importance of globalization as he developed the open door economic policy. Economic reforms, consequently, have significantly changed the way of life of majority of Chinese. The economic reforms have led to majority of Chinese moving from rural places to urban areas (Yao, p. 114). Growth in industrial sector has created mere employment opportunities. With growth in job opportunities in urban areas, many people from urban areas migrated to urban areas in search for employment. Formal employment in urban areas has led to increase demand for formal education as many Chinese people view education as gate to better employment opportunities.

Globalization can be defined as participation in various activities beyond national boundaries. Globalization implies that there is free movement of good and services, information, capital, technology and people across borders. Although globalization is viewed as a new concept, it has been in existence for a long. China has been for long promoted the concept of globalization (Allen, Quian and Quin, p. 68). China’s participation in global activities can be traced in Han dynasty between 206bc to 220 AD. During this period, China was actively involved in global activities with neighbouring regions through silk trade. Subsequent periods, however, were marked by low global activities until Deng Xiaoping’s era. Today China is a major participant in globalization. Chinese products can be found in many regions of the world. Apart from foreign trade, China has embraced globalization through foreign trade and migration. Chinese companies have been investing in various part of the world especially in developing countries (Allen, Quian and Quin, p. 113). Globalization has also allowed many Chinese to move out to other countries. Many Chinese are moving out for foreign trade, foreign assignment and for educational purposes. Presence of Chinese students in Western higher education systems has been on the increase in the last decade (Karmel, p. 57). Today Chinese student constitute as high proportion of foreign students in Australia, UK and United States of America.

Chinese education culture

The form of education in China is highly different from education in Ireland. In its various levels and form, education in China is highly viewed as nurturing of human soul through provision of knowledge. The term “education” in Chinese can be substituted by the word Jiao yu which has the meaning of nurturing or teaching (Zhu, p. 67). The Chinese culture holds that education is involving and takes a long duration of time. A saying in Chinese assert that as cultivation a tree takes tens years, educating a person would take ten times the time required by a tree. Educators in Chinese culture are regarded as engineers of human soul. Such an allusion demonstrates the role of a teacher in Chinese educational system. A teacher is not only responsible for disseminations knowledge but has an important role in inner development of students. The cultural awareness embodied in the Chinese cultural conception of Education wields a lot of influence on educators, parents and students.

Chinese Cultural Schema of Education

A Schema, according to cognitive sciences is defined as a theory about knowledge. According to Rumbelhart, Charles Bartlett was the earliest psychologist that studied nature of education (Rumbelhart, p. 57). He used the term schema in cognitive senses to describe the way in which memory functioned. According to Rumbelhart, schema theory is important in studying the way in which long memory function and how representation of knowledge influence the way in which knowledge is used. He views schema as the component of cognition. From his explanation, schema is understood as abstract construct through which knowledge is developed, stored and accessed. The influence of schema can also be understood by considering the influence of cultural schema in anthropology. Cultural schema is developed and distributed within context of a particular culture (Sharifian, p. 116). Although schematization is not equally distributed in all members of a particular culture, it influences the way in which people of a particular cultural background behave or relate among themselves. According to Sharifian, cultural schema influences the way in which people in a certain culture are able to identify each other and how they are able to communicate successfully (Sharifian, p. 117). He also argues that although cultural schema changes with time, it has consisted elements that influence characteristic of a certain cultural group in long term. He asserts that cultural schema develop from salient rituals, social structure and other many cultural factors (Sharifian, p. 119). According to Sharifian, cultural schema is manifested in various ways such as through idioms, cultural artifacts, narratives and rituals. He emphasizes the importance of popular sayings, proverbs and idioms in perpetuating cultural understanding.

Chinese cultural schema of education can be understood as abstract conception of nature of education that is passed down through culture. The schema is distributed among members of Chinese culture. According to Zhu, the education cultural knowledge is passed down through many years of interaction. He posits that the educational schema developed because of social interactions aimed at forming harmony among Chinese people, political utilitarianism of education and influence from Confucian philosophy of education. He points at the need to ensure peace and harmony and peaceful interrelation as some of conceptions that are integrated in Chinese cultural education schema.

Zhu addresses the influence on Confucian philosophy in Chinese cultural education schema. According to Zhu, Confucian teaching emphasizes on need for harmony in society. He brings up Confucianism five virtues and shows how they are manifested in Chinese educational schema. The five virtues: benevolence, propriety, righteousness, honesty and intelligence advocate for a harmonious society. Zhu says that the virtues are aimed at achieving and maintaining a harmonious hierarchical society (Zhu, p. 106). Presence of Confucian philosophy in Chinese educational schema strengthens cultural perception that moral virtue is vital to harmony in the society. According to Zhu, various rituals used to celebrate and commemorate Confucian play a significant role in cementing understanding that learning and teaching aim at cultivating people while moral virtues aimed at ensuring social harmony.

Zhu names political utilitarianisms as another major source on Chinese culture educational schema. Zhu posits that Chinese cultural educations system was highly influenced by people in leadership positions. He says that the system is modeled to address the interest of political class that is in power. Explaining this he says that political utilitarianism result from cultural need to maintain social harmony (Zhu, p. 110). He explains that violence could lead to disruption of peace at ruling class and affect social harmony even to common people. Zhu assert that Confucianism teachings are consistent with political utilitarianism. Zhu explains that Confucianism advocate for ideal seniority that is obeyed and followed by complying inferiority. He says that Confucianism teachings expect people to act appropriately depending on their stand in social hierarchy.

From influence from Confucianism and political utilitarianism, Chinese cultural educational schema does not view disseminating knowledge as the only goal of education. Instead, this schema views passing knowledge as a means of cultivating young individuals. Education is viewed as a means of transforming young people to have high moral conscience and help them take their place in social hierarchy. The role of a teacher in Chinese cultural educational schema is different from contemporary role of an educator (Zhu, p. 113). The responsibility of a teacher in Chinese cultural schema of education is to transform or nurture the students. Professionalism or specific knowledge that is required in a particular field has less influence on the role of teachers in Chinese education system. Instead, the major role of teachers is viewed as that of instilling high moral virtues on students. Teaching is viewed as a process of transforming students to take appropriate places in their society. According to the educational schema, teachers are also viewed caring individuals, individuals of high respect as well as moral role models.

Influence of educational schema on international Chinese students

Chinese cultural education schema has influence on how Chinese student adapt to Irish educational system. There is high possibility for the deep education schema being activated in Chinese student in Irish higher education institutions. The Chinese cultural education schema may be activated as foundation of how they view Irish education system (Wang and Webster, p. 11). Taking into consideration that the students do not have a foundation in Irish educational schema, they may have problems in adapting to their new learning environment. According to Wang and Webster, the activated Chinese schema frequently place Chinese students in a place where they are not able to integrate well with new academic communities and system. According to Wand and Webster, the main challenge is difficulty in communication or miscommunication with lecturers in foreign institutions (Wang and Webster, p. 13). Wang and Webster attribute their lack of intercultural communication to difference in life and cultural experience. They say that, even with well-developed English, there are still communication barriers between Chinese students and their foreign lecturers. They say that despite of good English language in some Chinese student, they still have trouble in engaging in fluent and enjoyable conversations with local as well as other international students. They conclude that influence of Chinese education schema is responsible for communication difficulties and discomfort among international Chinese students (Wang and Webster, p. 16). They further posit that Chinese education schema influences Chinese expectation on lecturers and education system in general. Wang and Webster give an example of a tearful Chinese student in an Australia university to illustrate challenges experienced by Chinese international students. They explain that miscommunication between the tearful student and lecturer resulted from difference in how they conceptualized the learning strategies, role of teachers and their students, open teacher-student communication and their attitude towards assessment. They explain that the student could have considered the role of the lecturer as that of knowledge transmitter and moral role model (Wang and Webster, p. 16). Consequently, the student did not take accessibility of the lecture with dire seriousness. They say that the student always considered the lecturer to be always in a hurry and thus not available for consultation. They further argue that the tearful student was not used to student-centered approach but expected a teacher centered approach.

Educational Reforms in China

China’s contemporary education system has undergone vital educational reforms over the years and this has led to the expansion of its education market. Currently the system is run by the state through the ministry of education and compels every child to school for at least 9 years (People’s Daily Online par, p. 3). The schooling pattern has six years of primary school education with another step of six years in secondary school. The ages admitted for this system starts from 6 years and 12 years for primary and secondary schools respectively. The secondary schools have the middle and high school, which is divided in half that is 3 years each. Some provinces offer 5 years of primary school with 4 years of middle school. The reforms were made in 1985 and the main reasons were to spur it towards economic transformations (People’s Daily Online par, p. 5). Previously, China had a cultural revolution, which made limited advances in their quest for economic dominance, it therefore ended in 1976 having been in existence for 10 years. A reform that compelled a nine-year education for everyone was unveiled in May of the same year by the central committee. These reforms changed the structure of education system of China and paved way for advancements that are currently witnessed in the country. An educational commission was created which governed the reforms and their implementation. The government’s five-year plan from 1986 to 1990, which was to the tune of 172% of the previous budget, indicated their commitment to educational reforms that were late to transform this sector into an excellent system (Ngok and Lee, p. 43). This projected to a massive 16.8% of the government budget, much more than the previous 10.4% allocated the previous year.

This project did not just start in 1985, since 1949, China’s education system had been under critics for the wide social gaps which brought divisions, and slowed development in the communist nation. This changed the political scene with massive inter-party realignments witnessed with proposals of various policies to solve the educational crisis, as it seemed. From 1958, educational movements came up with the aim of narrowing the cultural and social gaps, which had existed between those who lived in the urban and rural areas. Another reason was to stop the already rooted academic superiority; these included the socialist whose movement existed between 1962 and 1965 (Ngok and Lee, p. 39). These reforms can be credited to the insightful communist leadership after Mao Zedong, which became the basis for Chinese modernization. Among the focus of the reforms included Science and technology given the highest of priorities by the government. This led to steady expansion in science, with advancement in technology and innovation. The reforms included training for the already learned Chinese elite to modernize their techniques according to the advance trends in the world. The government had stipulated the modernization goals it planned to achieve and expansion of science and technology was seen as essential to this plan. Humanities were not left out either as they formed an integral part of this development. Since the West was more advanced and China needed these technologies for their development, they started focusing on borrowing in the numerous scientific fields from the West. A policy aimed at utilizing the borrowed knowledge was adopted in 1976 setting stage for the reforms. During these periods, research focused on the four modernizations which were in the government’s agenda were encouraged, but were to comply with the 4 Cardinal principles of the communist party and any overstretch would not be tolerated with restrictions in place to curb them (Ngok and Lee, p. 45 ).

Going through with the four modernizations needed total overhaul of the education system, especially the science and technology field. The increasing concerns of quality education, qualitative paucities, and shortage of personnel highlighted the reasons for the reforms higher education. This saw the need to adopt new resolutions and policies that would guide the principles in the socialist state with emphasis on science, education and technology. With the realization that the reforms in place did not raise the institutions of higher education to the modernization standards, further changes were made. These latter changes in 1986, made improvements on the content of education, these changes were based on higher performance, direction and administration of the colleges and universities. They could choose their curriculum, control their budgets, cooperate with other organizations like scientific research and organize international exchange programs to borrow knowledge. The institutions could accept fiscal aid, and help in the running of inter–regional schools. Increasing interest in radio and television studies was observed during this period. Reforms were made on the admission criteria, which gave out exams to be passed before admission; policies in assignments were also reformed to reflect modernization. Other reforms package targeted offshore studies, loan system and scholarship, and investments in education.

In line with China’s quest to meets it modernization objectives, online education has also been established where students could study at home in both local and international universities. Adult education has also been principal in China’s development objectives. Language and literature has been another reform package with the learning of foreign languages to fasten borrowing of knowledge and technological advances (People’s Daily Online par 6). Rural education has flourished in this era with many foreign students moving into Chinese learning institutions. Education supply has improved with the establishment of the private education. These reforms have placed china’s educational sector in the right path to quality education and improvement of innovation potential (People’s Daily Online, pp. 1-4).The 21^st century has also seen great reforms in china as parents aim to take their children to top American, and European universities. Decentralization has also been achieved in the 21^st century with the expansion of the universities and colleges to accommodate more professionals for higher productions.

Management in Higher Education institutions

Management is aimed at improving performance of an organization. It involves management elements such organizing, planning, staffing, controlling and leading. In education institutions, management ensures that the best outcome is achieved. Resources in a learning institution must be invested in a way that that brings the greatest opportunities for students (Middlewood and Lumby, p. 116).

Concept of Management

Management is a very important concept in contemporary world. Management as a concept originates from the area of management as well as many other areas. Many early scholars on management were themselves practicing managers and thus devoted a lot of knowledge on the field (Robbins and Coulter 73). Scholars in other areas such as sociology, anthropology and psychology have also contributed highly to the concept of management. These scholars regarded management as very vital aspect of social phenomenon. Managers were also placed highly in the society and their contribution appreciated. Professionals in various areas such as economists, mathematicians, engineers, political scientist accountants and lawyers have contributed to the development of management. Many scholars have appreciated the importance of management in development of any organization. Various writers commonly identify five functions of management. The functions consist of planning, organizing, control, staffing and leadership (Kotler, p. 29). According to Weihrich and Koontz, success of any organization depends on how it integrates these five functions of management. They argue that the five functions are interdependent and should be carried out inclusively (Weihrich & Koontz, p. 61). They further warn that managers fail in their roles because of neglect one or more of the five functions. A brief description of the function according to various scholars is provided below.

Planning

This is the most important role of management without which organizations cannot be able to achieve their objectives. According to Robbins and Coulter, the function of planning consists of defining goals and developing a strategy through which the goals can be achieved (Robbins and De Cenzo, 1995, p. 94). It consists of developing elaborate plans for achieving set goals. According to Weihrich and Koontz, planning also involved coming up with clear objectives and defining clear mission and vision statement. They argue that function of planning cannot be said to present when an organization does not have very elaborate mission and vision statement. They further argue that mission and vision statement should be able to capture the picture of what an organization wants to achieve and provide a road map to attain the vision. Robbins and Coulter argue that planning calls for decision making which consist of choosing definite actions to be taken from among various alternatives.

Organizing

This function is responsible for day to day running of and organization. It determines how various roles in an organization would be carried out. According to Robbins and Coulter, organizing is responsible for groping various tasks in an organization to enable smooth running (Robbins and Coulter, p. 67). According to Griffin, the function of organization is responsible for coming up with the best way to carry out activities in an organization (Griffin, p. 121).

Staffing

Human resource is the most important resource in an organization. According to Griffin, staffing is the process through which an organization recruits and keeps employees. According to him, the process involves indentifying individuals that are qualified for positions in an organization and making effort to acquire and keep the best talents (Griffin, p. 49). Appropriate staffing also involves frequent evaluation of employees and responding to their developmental needs such as training.

Leadership

According to Robbins and Coulter, leadership is one of managerial function that is highly neglected. They assert that management has an important role in leading the people in an organization (Robbins and Coulter 77). The management coordinates and directs people in an organization and enables them to achieve the organization goal. Weihrich and Koontz on the other hand define leadership as the acts of influencing people in order to enable them attain some objectives (Weihrich and Koontz, p. 87).

Control

For and organization to be able to achieve its objectives, control is required. According to Weihrich and Koontz, the function of control is required to monitor performance in an organization and ensure that organizational objectives are attained (Weihrich and Koontz, p. 56). They assert that despite of goals being well articulated, there is possibility of the objective failing to be achieved because of various factors. They say that control enables the management to identify factors that can prevent an organization from reaching its goals and make timely interventions (Weihrich and Koontz, p. 83). Griffin on the other hand views controls as pro-active measures taken to ensure that objectives are achieved.

Paradigm Change in Management

Management practices in contemporary times have experienced significant change. High competition in modern days calls for adoption dynamic management practices that adjust flexibly to competition. In 1970’s organizations used to make long terms plans and were sure that the plans could work. Rapid changes starting from 1980,s however reversed the trend. Change such as deregulation of organizations, technological advancement, changes in energy sector and global competition necessitated managers to rethink their management practices (Robbins and De Cenzo, p.107). According to Robbins and Coulter, the new challenges led to development of a systematic method of analyzing an organization’s strengths and weaknesses and developing strategic plans to overcome weaknesses and optimize opportunities. New challenges in management helped in conception and development of strategic planning. Many scholars have assessed the importance of strategic planning in an organization. According to Robbins and Coulter, strategic planning has a significant contribution to performance in an organization. They encourage managers to support their decisions by using formal strategic planning. Robbins and Coulter further argue that the concept of strategic planning has wide application including in non-profit organizations, government agencies, education institutions and hospitals (Robbins and Counter, p. 89).

Management in Institutions of Higher Education

According to Johnson, management practices can either promote or hinder effective running of an institution of higher learning. He warns that unless good practices are adopted, institutions are bound to experience difficulties (Johnson, p. 16). He identifies common challenges in capacity management, resource allocation, funding, managing diversity and increased competition (Johnson, p. 14). In capacity planning, He identifies capital investment in infrastructure, acquisition of equipments and maximizing program subscriptions as some of the challenges. Higher learning institutions in Ireland have trouble in being able to achieve sustainable enrolment for their various programs. As government funding in higher education institutions continuous to drop, there is need for change in management strategy. Management in higher learning institutions should focus of attracting foreign students to boost incomes and utilize available learning opportunities. To attract international students, learning institutions should aim at providing favourable learning environment for targeted students.

Summary

Higher learning institutions in Ireland experience challenges in being able secure sufficient enrolment for various programs. This is in contrast to high demand for higher education in China. As government sponsorship for education continuous to drop, there is need for change in management strategies in Irish higher education institutions. Increase of Chinese student seeking higher education is a great opportunity for Irish Universities to boost their income. Management in Irish higher learning institutions should focus on attracting foreign students to boost incomes and utilize available learning facilities. To attract international students, learning institutions should aim at providing favourable learning environment for targeted student. International Chinese students are highly influenced by Chinese cultural education schema. This influence makes it difficult for Chinese students to adapt to foreign learning systems. As Chinese global economic influence continuous to grow, there is high likelihood for continuous demand for higher education in China. The literature review provides important framework for possible strategic plan in Irish universities to attract Chinese students.

Works Cited

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