Introduction
Psychopharmacology is the branch of psychology that studies the interaction of human psychology and medications and other chemicals referred to as drugs (Pi and Simpson, 2005, p. 31). Psychopharmacology is focused not on the variety of drugs people can use but on the effects of those drugs on people’s behaviors, thinking processes and activities. It is proven by scholars that medications, psychotropic chemicals, and drugs influence the human brain and affect the processes that take place in it, thus altering the human reactions to the processes of the surrounding world (Wickens, 2005, p. 14). Drawing from this, psychopharmacology operates with such notions as excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, synaptic transmission, receptors, primary neurotransmitters, brain function, and human behavior. Recent studies in psychopharmacology have found the connection between ethnicity and psychopharmacological reactions of people. Thus, basic notions of psychopharmacology and the role of ethnicity in it constitute the focus of this paper.
Basic Notions
Excitatory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials, according to Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Katz, Lamantia, Mcnamara, and Williams (2001), are the potentials that increase the likelihood of creating the postsynaptic action potential in postsynaptic muscle cells that cooperate with neurotransmitters and open ion pathways through which signals from cells to the brain are delivered (pp. 281 – 282). Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, as Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Katz, Lamantia, Mcnamara, and Williams (2001) argue, are on the contrary the potentials that decrease the likelihood of creating the postsynaptic action potential in postsynaptic muscle cells (p. 283). Both potential types are vital for brain functioning as they facilitate the ion pathways’ creation and help transmit signals to the human brain.
Synaptic Transmission and Receptors
Further on, brain cells and over 100 billion neurons found in the human brain need to connect, communicate, and exchange information. Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Katz, Lamantia, Mcnamara, and Williams (2001) argue that synaptic transmission is the means through which brain neurons communicate. There are two classes of synaptic transmission; they include electric and chemical synapses. The former operates through the electricity current sent from neuron to neuron and from cells to neurons: “Electrical synapses permit direct, passive flow of electrical current from one neuron to another. The current flows through gap junctions, which are specialized membrane channels that connect the two cells” (Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Katz, Lamantia, Mcnamara, and Williams, 2001, p. 175). On the other hand, the chemical synapses allows for direct connection of cells by means of secreted neurotransmitters.
Primary Neurotransmitters
In their turn, neurotransmitters, especially the primary ones, act as means of communication between neurons and between neurons and other cells:
All neurotransmitter molecules undergo a similar cycle of use involving (1) synthesis and packaging into vesicles in the presynaptic cell; (2) release from the presynaptic cell and binding to receptors on one or more postsynaptic cells; and (3) rapid removal and/or degradation (Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Katz, Lamantia, Mcnamara, and Williams, 2001, p. 175).
Thus, neurotransmitters serve as the main means of communication of cells and neurons. There are over 100 neurotransmitters that are divided into small-molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides, with the former performing instant neuron operations and the latter being responsible for the slow and long-lasting brain processes (Purves, Augustine, Fitzpatrick, Katz, Lamantia, Mcnamara, and Williams, 2001, p. 176). Problems with secretion and binding of neurotransmitters in the human organism lead to psychic disorders, and scholars currently study this topic together with ethnic peculiarities of neurotransmission and psychopharmacology.
Ethnicity in Psychopharmacology
Background
The topic of ethnic differences in psychopharmacology has been bothering scholars recently more and more. It is connected with the development of multinational society and emergence of the need to study how the representatives of different ethnic groups and races react to psychotropic medications and drugs, and how their neurotransmitters’ formation is affected by it (Pi and Simpson, 2005, p. 31; Kuno and Rothbard, 2002, p. 568). Thus, according to Pi and Simpson (2005), “the types and dosages of psychotropic medications may differ significantly in different countries or regions or even in the same clinical setting” (p. 31). Pi and Simpson (2005) also argue that the dosages of psychotropic medications for Asians and Hispanics tend to be lower than for whites, although Kuno and Rothbard (2002) report the contradicting findings (p. 568). All these pieces of evidence prove that scholars consider the topic of ethnic differences in psychopharmacology, but further investigations are still needed to provide data with potential for generalization and application to the wider variety of specific cases.
Current Development
Drawing from this, the current stage of development of cross cultural psychopharmacology that deal with ethnical peculiarities in neurotransmission and reactions on psychotropic medications experiences it intermediary period. In other words, psychopharmacology disposes of certain sets of data on ethnicity and psychology interrelation, but, as Wickens (2005) and Pi and Simpson (2005) argue, modern social development demands innovative methods to widen the scholarly scope of psychopharmacology:
Although numerous anecdotal clinical reports have suggested that ethnicity and culture significantly influence the dosage requirement and side effect profiles of various psychotropic medications, few systematic, rigorously designed studies have explored the potential mechanisms that are responsible for these differences (Pi and Simpson, 2005, p. 33).
In other words, the current development of cross-cultural direction of psychopharmacology is at the stage when scholars stress that ethnic differences in medication effects and psychotic disorders’ treatment exist, but there is no evidence about the causes and effects of those differences (Kuno and Rothbard, 2002, pp. 568 – 569). This is another reason for psychopharmacology to develop in the direction of further research in the area of cross cultural and ethnic peculiarities of medications’ effects and psychological and psychotic disorders’ development.
Impact on Biological Psychology
Needless to say, the study of ethnic and cross cultural peculiarities of psychopharmacology has a positive impact upon the development of biological psychology. First of all, the topic of ethnicity and race as the field of biological psychology widens the scope of the latter science considerably (Wickens, 2005, pp. 213 – 214). Being formerly focused on the issues of human mind and health, biological psychology now obtains the chance to expand to the social sphere by involving not purely biological but social factors in its consideration of the human mind as well. At the same time, the topic of ethnic differences in psychopharmacology can allow biological psychology to answer some of its unanswered questions through widening the area of study for the science.
Conclusions
Summing up the topic of ethnicity in psychopharmacology studies, it can be stated that cross cultural peculiarities of medication effects and psychotic disorders’ treatment have been noticed by scholars only recently and their study demands further development. However, the current state of cross cultural psychopharmacology development allows speaking about its great contribution to the development of biological psychology.
References
Kuno, E. and Rothbard, A. B. (2002). Racial Disparities in Antipsychotic Prescription Patterns for Patients With Schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 567-572.
Pi, H. M. and Simpson, G. M. (2005). Psychopharmacology: Cross-Cultural Psychopharmacology: A Current Clinical Perspective. Psychiatric Services, 56, 31 – 33.
Purves, D., Augustine, G. J., Fitzpatrick, D., Katz, L. C., Lamantia, A. S., Mcnamara, J. O, and Williams, S. M. (2001). Neuroscience. Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Wickens, A. (2005). Foundations of Biopsychology, 2e, Prentice Hall, Inc. A Pearson Education Company.