Introduction
Cybercrimes are a category of criminal activities involving the use of a computer, information sharing platforms, or networked devices. They encompass a diverse assortment of illegal practices in which the offender targets an individual, computer, or an institution to perpetrate such criminal activities as fraud, theft of intellectual property, and harassment. Notably, the emergence and widespread adoption of computers and the internet as revolutionary technologies created new opportunities through which criminals targeted and exploited vulnerabilities existing within these systems. Over the years, incidences, scope, and sophistication of cybercrimes have surged globally, resulting in enormous socioeconomic impacts on individuals, institutions, and society. Consequently, sociological and psychological experts have formulated multiple criminological theories to explain the cause of cybercrime and provide insights into the mind of cybercriminals. Although social learning and routine activity theories argue that online anonymity is the leading cause of cybercrimes, a sociological perspective points to increased connectivity and reliance on technology as the drivers of computer-enabled crimes.
Literature Review
The advent of computer and internet connectivity technologies created new criminal opportunities and novel types of crime. As these inventions continue to gain widespread adoption, become increasingly interconnected, and progressively permeate every area of everyday life, online criminality has grown correspondingly. The accelerated digitization of personal, business, and governmental activities and the application of such emerging technologies as remote working, cloud computing, and the Internet of Things have facilitated the explosive growth in cybercrime (Perwej et al., 2021). Kshetri (2019) corroborates this perspective and notes that the challenge of cybercrime has aggravated every year, resulting in significantly heavy consequences. According to Monteith et al. (2021), cybercrime is becoming a daily struggle and is projected to worsen as criminals seek to exploit its anonymity, secrecy, and interconnectedness. In this regard, online criminal activities are a major global concern due to the severity of their socioeconomic consequences.
The Scale of the Crime
Over the years, the severity, scale, and complexity of cybercrimes have grown exponentially, with severe detrimental effects on individuals and societies. Multiple data sets suggest that online criminal activities are continually evolving and expanding, with new crimes emerging frequently (Bossler & Berenblum, 2019; Furnell & Dowling, 2019). For instance, cybercrime is increasingly transcending geographical boundaries, a trend which undermines the effectiveness and ability of criminal justice systems to address the challenge. Similarly, the evolving technical capabilities of cybercriminals facilitate the emergence and subsequent proliferation of new crimes targeting such areas as digital currencies (Trozze et al., 2022; Badawi & Jourdan, 2020). From this perspective, it is evident that the scale of cybercrime continues to grow and expand exponentially as computers and the internet become progressively embedded in societies.
Additionally, digital platforms have become the preferred avenues through which cybercriminals execute a wide range of socially disruptive activities, including child sexual predation, sexual exploitation, cyberbullying, abuse, and online harassment. Witting (2021) contends that the digital environment has created additional risks of predatory behaviors targeting different categories of people, including children. For instance, Lovelle et al. (2017) note that approximately 15% of pornography content on the internet involves young people or children. Investigative psychology insights suggest that this scale could be larger due to the challenges in identifying the victims. Notably, these activities are conducted by sophisticated pedophile rings, organized crime groups, or individuals motivated by profits or malice. According to Omar and Ibrahim (2020) and Lee (2019), the rise and proliferation of such cybercrimes have coincided with the explosive growth of the dark web, which provides anonymity and privacy to the users. Therefore, cybercrime is a pervasive digital phenomenon whose growth corresponds to the widespread digitization and increasing reliance on computers and the internet.
Risk Factors
In the light of the increasing dependence on digital technologies in everyday life, the number, frequency, and severity of cybercrimes have grown considerably over the years. Cyberspace security experts note that the probable reasons for online victimization can be explained by such victim factors as lack of information, impulsivity, and greed. Economic, lifestyles, and social factors play an integral role in escalating or diminishing the risk of falling victim to cybercrime. Mikkola et al. (2020) assert that a person’s way of life may enhance their attractiveness to cybercriminals or convert them into easy online targets. For instance, such lifestyles as prolonged hours on the internet can increase someone’s susceptibility and create chances of being a victim of cybercrime. Similarly, people with limited information about criminal activities conducted on the internet are considerably vulnerable since they are unlikely to observe caution and become targets of online criminal activities (Reyns, 2017; Hsieh & Wang, 2018)). Therefore, a person’s routine activities and level of knowledge significantly influence the likelihood of falling victim to cybercrime.
Additionally, the widespread digitization of economies and expansive execution of commercial activities over digital technologies are major risk factors for cybercrime. Remeikiene et al. (2021) contend that integrating technology in an economy and the conduct of business, personal, and governmental transactions using digital devices and over the internet create vulnerability to cybercrime. Lahcen et al. (2020) corroborate this view and argue that the growing use of the internet and other digital devices has expanded significantly over the years and created a significant rise in incidences, frequency, and scale of online criminal activities. This implies that the acceptance of technology and digitization of economies are precursors and substantial risk factors for cybercrime.
Such social factors as rising levels of education, income, occupation, prestige, wealth, and a relatively youthful are prominent risk components contributing to the escalation of cybercrimes. Amankwa (2021) posits that the rising global education levels are positively impacting such areas as communication, interactions, and information exchange. For instance, most people are readily embracing emerging communication technologies and conducting a significant proportion of their interactions and businesses online. Similarly, a relatively youthful, technologically savvy global population with a remarkable inclination towards prestige, convenience, and digital devices has promoted the perpetration of online criminal activities.
Criminological Theories
Sociologists, psychologists, and criminology experts have formulated theories and hypotheses that provide insights and explanations on the reasons underlying the commission of cybercrime. Among the main approaches that illuminate the triggers of online criminal activity include the institutional anomie, routine activity, general strain, and social learning. Notably, these hypotheses constitute an integral component of handling and preventing deviant online behaviors by offering in-depth perspectives on why some people commit a crime, the risk factors, and practical approaches to curbing criminal activities.
Institutional Anomie Theory
A significant proportion of online criminal activities are significantly influenced by the immense societal emphasis on economic success and the dominance of monetary pursuits over other interests and sectors of the community. According to Hovermann and Messner (2019), crime patterns considerably indicate how society ranks economic wellbeing over such other aspects as education. Notably, financial gain is the prominent and key driver of cybercrime, with an estimated 90% of breaches motivated by money (Leukfeldt et al., 2017). Dearden et al. (2021) and Adler et al. (2021) affirm this view and argue that the dark side of the American Dream has contributed significantly to the rise in online criminality as more people are pressured to achieve economic goals. For instance, societies across the globe, particularly the United States, have amplified the value of material success, fetishized money, and emphasized monetary accomplishment at whatever cost. In this regard, the proliferation of cybercrime across the globe can be explained as a function of societal pressures on people to achieve economic goals and succeed through the accumulation of money.
Strain Theory
Although societies have culturally defined objectives of material wellbeing, the institutionally determined systems do not offer equal opportunities for all members of communities to achieve such aspirations. As a result, these people develop deviant adaptations after abandoning the defined goals. The strain theory explains the avenues through which the disadvantaged people in the society construct new environments and systems through which they cope with the resultant frustration, strain, anger, and anxiety (Dearden et al., 2021). This theory offers insights into the genesis and motivation of such cybercrimes as online scams, hacking, cyber harassment, piracy, and hate speech. For instance, cyberbullying is both a stressor and a stress-releasing strategy.
Routine Activity Theory
The perpetration and the subsequent increase of cybercrimes are primarily influenced by the convergence of the critical components that facilitate the execution of a crime. These factors include the potential offender, a suitable or attractive target, and the absence of a capable guardian (Adler et al., 2021; Governder et al., 2021). For instance, the anonymity and secrecy of the internet significantly motivate potential offenders to execute the online crime. From the victim’s perspective, the routine activity theory argues that the recurrent and prevalent habits in which the victim is engaged influence their attractiveness to online criminals. Notably, this hypothesis provides an insightful perspective on the underlying reasons for the spike in cybercrimes during the Covid-19 pandemic as it radically altered people’s routine activities.
Social Learning Theory
The social learning theory posits that people develop the desire and skills to commit crimes after associating with others who are active in the commission of illegal activities. As incidences of cybercrime continue to rise, more people are becoming exposed to it, leading to more people getting recruited into it. According to Rokven et al. (2017), friends’ involvement in online criminal activities leads to the risk of offending by other members of a peer group. This theory provides in-depth perspectives on the potential causes of the emergence of online criminal gangs perpetrating the organized crime.
Effects of Cybercrime on Society
As the incidences and scale of cybercrimes continue to grow, their effects on society are becoming increasingly destructive. Considering that communities, businesses, governments, and individuals are becoming more dependent on cyberspace, the perpetration of crime and victimization of these entities through online activities and digital devices can potentially destabilize societies. For instance, people may get withdrawn from society, experience deteriorated health, and avoid online engagements after being bullied online or their private information being released and accessed by unauthorized people. Additionally, these online criminal activities may undermine a society’s dependence on technological advances, threaten business viability, and increase incidences of mental health problems.
Future of Cybercrime
As digital systems and information communication permeate all sectors of everyday life, online criminal activities are increasing correspondingly. However, there are such emerging trends in cybercrime as organized online criminality perpetrated by criminal groups. These syndicates are launching large-scale offenses through skillful compromising of systems. Additionally, there is a growing trend of state-backed cybercriminals that are formed to disrupt the government and economic activities of different countries. In recent years, cybercriminals have been selling knowledge and tools required to execute online offenses through crime-as-a-service, making cybercrime accessible to even more people (Bossler & Berenblum, 2019; Alghamdi, 2020). From this perspective, it is evident that the risk of cybercrime is bound to increase exponentially in the future as more people and activities become interconnected and digitized.
Sociological Perspective of Cybercrime
A notable sociological perspective of cybercrime is its growing pervasion and penetration into the interconnected nature of social structures. Notably, social interconnection and interdependency are increasing, and more people are embracing technology. These social trends play an integral role in promoting the prevalence of online criminal habits. Additionally, societies are progressively emphasizing the value of success regardless of how it is achieved. This departure from moral and ethical avenues of pursuing wealth and success has been identified as among the prominent drivers of cybercrime.
Conclusion
Cybercrime is a fast-rising category of criminal activities conducted using digital technologies or targeting computers and computerized systems. Over the years, its severity, scale, and frequency have increased considerably as influenced by such risk factors as the widespread adoption of technology, extensive digitization of economies and societies, and motive for monetary gains. Routine activity, strain, social learning, and institutional anomie theories of criminology provide insightful explanations as to the potential causes and motivations for online criminal habits. Notably, these cybercrimes pose a significant threat to societies, governments, businesses, and individuals as cybercriminals seek to exploit their dependence on technology and digital devices. From a futuristic perspective, cybercrimes are expected to worsen and become more sophisticated as the monetary motivation and social pressures for financial success rise.
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