A perspective is an approach that bears particular assumptions or beliefs about the nature of the human behaviour. Each psychological perspective has its weaknesses and strengths as well as each psychological perspective having a different point of view on the understanding of human and animal behaviour. The knowledge and understanding of the psychological perspectives can contribute to the assessment and identification of the behaviour as well as the choice of intervention. However, one perspective cannot apply to every individual due to the fact that it can be relevant in one situation and irrelevant in another. Thus, a choice of the psychological approach will be determined by the context in which the behaviour occurs.
The psychodynamic perspective is the approach that is based on Freud’s works about human behaviour being determined by a feeling of subconsciousness. This psychological approach states that the visible issues that occur in children are caused by inner conflicts. Such problems may easily appear from early traumatic experiences in the past as well as badly-resolved relationships. Because of the lack of the inner resources, the majority of children cannot safely deal with trauma, thus, the dealing method is linked to improper behaviour (Behavioural, emotional and social development unit 11. Psychological perspectives on behaviour 2012, p. 2).
Psychologists Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner greatly influenced the development of the behaviourist psychological perspective. The most relevant principle of the perspective is that the negative behaviour is suppressed while the positive is strengthened. According to the perspective, human behaviour is being learned by an individual, thus, it can be modified by the use of the punishment-reward system. The perspective emphasises the role of the environmental stimuli in determining the way individual acts. Generally speaking, it refers to learning – different changes that occur as a result of experiences. The choice of focus is the factor that makes the behaviourist perspectives unique from others (Glassman & Hadad 2013, p. 110).
According to the cognitive perspective, the cognitive processes that refer to understanding and reasoning have the most effect on the behaviour of an individual.
The cognitive perspective puts forward an idea that the cognitive processes of reasoning, interpretation or understanding are the events that have the most influence on the individual’s behaviour. In addition, the approach sets a goal to answer of the question of why the same factor affects various responses in various individuals. There is no relation to the processes of unconsciousness; thus, the cognitive perspective is very different from the psychodynamic one. Rather, the cognitive perspective is linked to the consciousness and thinking or reasoning about a particular situation. The difference from the behavioural approach lies in the fact that the cognitive approach is connected to the unmeasurable events that cannot be observed.
The humanist perspective is developed from the works of Maslow and Rogers. The idea of the perspective is about an idea of the behaviour being a centre of an individual, that is the consciousness of the identity. Theorists held a view that an individual could fulfil the potential with the help of the positive self-regard (positive view of themselves). However, this is only possible when an individual has an unconditional positive regard of other people if an individual feels respect and value from those people that surround them. Another aspect of the humanist perspective refers to the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In the hierarchy, the more basic human needs lay a foundation for the higher needs.
For example, an individual has to have his or her achievement recognised; however, it will be impossible if an individual is hungry. Maslow’s theory concluded that those people that were able to satisfy their needs can become self-actualisers. On the other hand, it was thought that the long periods when a certain need was not satisfied by an individual could lead to a fixation. For instance, a person who grew up in poverty and starvation may be surrounded by anxiety about the lack of food even if they could afford it and escape poverty (Sammons n.d., p. 1).
The idea of an ecosystem greatly influenced the ecosystemic psychological perspective. In such a system, every minor change will affect the system. The approach is characterised by the assumptions that the negative behaviour in individuals is affected by the social interactions. Moreover, negative behaviour is considered a link in a reaction chain between the individuals. For instance, the ecosystemic approach can be applied in the interaction between teachers, students, and the families of the students. The changes in the negative behaviour are only possible with the focus on each individual separately.
Explanations of Intellectual and Moral Development
Intellectual development is a progression that starts with ignorance or uncertainty to the intelligent confusion. For example, a majority of students entering college are tightly connected with the ignorant uncertainty. The system of beliefs that students have is greatly influenced by the system of beliefs of others. To support the validity of the belief system, students rarely applied any reasoning or critical thinking. The previous beliefs are being challenged by the life experiences, the opinions of other people, classmates, teachers. Thus, unless an individual closes to any life-changing experiences or challenges, the naïve belief system begins to change and develop in accordance to the new acquired knowledge.
In order for students to attain intellectual maturity, it is important for them to function effectively as professionals and recognise their progression from the ignorant certainty to the intelligent confusion. According to Perry’s model of intellectual development, an individual starts developing from the blind acceptance of authority to a stage-by-stage acceptance of multiplicity of the views and then to the awareness of the necessity for commitment to the uncertainty, and lastly, undertaking the commitments and recognizing the implications (Felder 2004, p. 270).
Perry’s model was challenged by the fact that his studies only accounted the male population and disregarded the female patterns of development. In Women’s Ways of Knowing, Belecky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule (1997, p. 10) conducted a research in which they interviewed women about their life-changing experiences. As a result of the research, the foundings divided into five different perspectives that had similarities in the Perry’s model of development. On the other hand, the perspectives differed in the way the authors of the research underlined the gender differences in the development of an individual.
The levels of the Belencky model included silence, received knowing, subjective knowing, procedural knowing, and constructed knowledge. Moral development of an individual is connected with the formation of the value system that is based on the decisions about what is right or wrong, good or bad. The value system is made up of standards and assumptions that lead the process of the moral decision-making. There are several approaches that study the moral development of an individual; they are characterised in different ways.
The social learning approach is linked to the idea that each individual develops morality by studying the external rules that showcase the acceptable norms of the human behaviour. Thus, the social learning approach is linked to the behaviourist perspective. The approach puts forward an idea that the demands of the society and the instincts that exist within an individual are the pillars for the development of morality. The personality perspective towards the morality development offers a holistic approach while the cognitive development theories have suggested that the moral development is based on conditioning.
There is a certain difference in the approaches that study the moral development of an individual that can be formulated in a question: where an individual starts a journey of the moral development and where the journey ends. The debated topic of the modern Western society is the definition what is moral and what is immoral. With the rise of technological advanced and the scientific progress determining the moral frameworks of certain actions can become a complicated task. As an example, let’s examine the pre-natal testing. If there are any defects of the uterus found in the result of testing, the moral choice an individual to give birth to a child can become quite difficult.
To sum up, the study of the individual’s moral development is still relevant to the psychological circles. The significant rise in substance abuse, suicides, and teenage pregnancies are causing an increase of concern about the moral development of people, especially children. Parents or caretakers want to know how to properly raise their children so that they grow up moral individuals. With this issue, many turn with this question to developmental theorists. On the one hand, the guidelines for morally raising children provided by the theorists are sometimes hard to follow, thus, not every parent, caretaker or a teacher is able to devote a lot of time, resources, and efforts to strictly raise moral individuals. On the other hand, if children are being encouraged since birth, given a possibility and opportunity to develop and practice moral behaviour, most likely they will be able to form a moral behaviour that will guide them through life (Daeg de Mott n.d., p. 5).
Reference List
Behavioural, emotional and social development unit 11. Psychological perspectives on behaviour 2012. Web.
Belenky, M, Clinchy, B, Goldberger, N & Tarule, J 1997, Women’s ways of knowing: the development of self, voice, and mind, Basic Books, New York.
Daeg de Mott, D n.d., Moral development, Web.
Felder, R 2004, ‘The intellectual development of science and engineering students part 1. Models and challenges’, Journal of Engineering Education, vol. 93, no. 4, pp. 269-277.
Glassman, W & Hadad, M 2013, Approaches to psychology, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Berkshire.
Sammons, A n.d. The Humanistic approach: the basics. Web.