The book by E. P. Thompson The Making of the English Working Class represents a detailed observation of the English working class and its peculiarities. The author admits a significant role in the class formation. It is the way for designating and grouping people in accordance with their interests. It is the form of better conducting social processes. In fact, the author gives several definitions of the term “class”. In this respect, one should realize two main constituent parts of a class, namely: social and cultural peculiarity. Thus, the author notes his personal understanding of a class: “…we cannot understand class unless we see it as a social and cultural formation, arising from processes which can only be studied as they work themselves out over a considerable historical period” (Thompson 11). In this respect, it is necessary to make difference between, for instance, squires and laborers. On this basis, the relations of power and society form both unifying and contradicting variables. Taking into consideration the essence of the class structure of the society it is easy to make out the way in which power represents its forces. The author admits that English working men achieved their identity, as one of the ruling classes (Thompson 11). So this constituent is vital for the creation of power and its character as well.
The article by Leith Mullings “Interrogating Racism: Toward an Antiracist Anthropology” is the way for talking about the concept of equality in social relations and in the formation of power. The thing is that racial problem is apparent for the contemporary world. It is the result of the historical development of nations and colonization, in particular. It gives rise to social conflicts today due to the facts of intolerance among individuals. Thus, racism, as the author thinks, is a dilemma solely for the USA, but for all countries. In fact, the race is the feature of social stimulation. Hence, it can be socially constructed (Mullings 669). In this respect, the author provides an outlook on the previous historical background on the contemporary evaluation of racism. Looking at the claims of most historians the author defines racism as following: “…it is inextricably bound with the historical emergence of nation-states; is frequently built on earlier conflicts, and, furthermore, emerges amid contestation” (Mullings 670). Thus, Leith Mullings considers the racial problem, as the additional stimulus for the creation of power relations in a state.
The article “Racial Formation” by Michael Omi and Howard Winant describes the relation between race and policy in the state. It is a demonstration of how politics anticipate the racial problem in terms of legislative initiatives. The struggle of ethnic and racial entities with governments is at a core of the discussion. The concept of race is highly outlined in the article. It is considered as the feature of structuring the social world. It makes individuals divided into supporters and opponents of cases of discrimination. Moreover, racial formation, regarding the authors, presupposes race to be closely related to social and cultural representation (Omi and Winant 125). This is why the racial parameter is examined in terms of the society from the points of stratification. It becomes a feature of social stratum. The authors in this respect provide an idea that the society cannot but be suffused with racial diversity. Hence, political labels and trends in the state affairs should rely on the fact that this variable makes several emphases. They are felt mostly in social relations, but they spread all over a nation.
The book by Pem Davidson Buck Worked to the Bone: Race, Class, Power, and Privilege in Kentucky unites above stated themes with more points on the American situation. The main idea of the book is to analyze the processes which dominated the early history of the United States. In this respect the social domain of national development encountered the struggle of Native Americans with colonists. On the other hand, relations between the elite and colonized or enslaved people provided huge perspectives for the economical growth. Thus, unfree labour gave birth to unfree arrangements in the American society (Buck 17). In the state of Kentucky, this picture was varied. Oppression of Europeans on Native Americans and slaves from Africa was the major policy that was based on the features of race, class, and society.
Joan Scott wrote the article “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis” in order to illustrate the relation of gender to formation of power in the state. This idea is not new in contemporary society. Relationships between sexes led to the appearance of the term “gender”. It means that for a long period of time this term was considered mostly with men. Men appeared to be everywhere, in each sphere of state relations. In this respect, the one-sided approach of the policies in a definite country did not usually point out the needs of women and the opinions of women. On such grounds, feminism appeared. With the help of feminists, the term “gender” acquired its particular frequency in use. It became the notion which was related not solely to the biological identity, but also to the social group of individuals. Social distinctions of sex and the definition of gender were included in feminist understanding of gender (Scott 29). This is why humanity got acquainted with a new social formation of active and dynamic group of individuals. Furthermore, the author reconstructs the notion of gender from different theoretical teachings, such as Marxist, Weberian, and others. It serves to maintain and better work out the historical aspects of gender and women belonging to this term.
The anthropological aspects concerned with the concept of power are examined in the article by Eric R. Wolf “Distinguished Lecture: Facing Power – Old Insights, New Questions”. This work demonstrates personal observation of the mechanisms which drive social relations to achieving more power. The author correctly and with emphasis on accuracy depicts four different modes of power, namely: 1) power as the attribute of the person; 2) ability of an ego to influence on alter in social domain and in interpersonal communication; 3) tactical power; 4) power that organizes and orchestrates the settings themselves (Wolf 586). In this respect the author looks at the social relations from the side of constant struggle between different classes and other entities of individuals. Tactical and structural power is concerned by the author with the most optimal means for making effective organization of relations in the state. The significance of such sociological categories as form, function, and malfunction are used by the author to depict the dynamics of social processes for the creation of appropriate for this or that society power.
In social relations individuals are related to one another through the versatile processes of cooperation and communication. In this case the observation of the English middle class of people is considered for the observation. First of all, it is vital to highlight the role of working class. Working people are straightforwardly related toward the industrial enterprises which are verified by the governments. This easy chain of mutual interaction represents the background for formation of particular relationships. It means that different concepts from surveyed above are applied in the discussion. The relation of individuals to official power is the pivotal idea for making definite assumptions. All in all, the role of class, gender, racial and other social aspects is determined in the discussion, so that to make the clear picture as of the reality.
Observing the setting of the English middle class, it is necessary to point out that this category of British people relies on the stability of governmental programs. Perpetually unchanged social and economic course for the improvements and support of current satisfactory situation is the main guarantee for these people. Hence, it is vital to note that working people, people involved in small business or trade and representatives of education, medicine, and other budget-based professions are at the focus. This means that the aspects of class, race, and gender identity of each representative of this layer of the society may encounter various imperfections of the governmental programs. Moreover, it is the point for admitting that in contemporary England the society is multinational. Due to the historical elaboration and imperial pretences of England the society now should take into consideration the diversity of individuals living in it.
The UK is very influential country of the world along with the USA. This is why the line of social guarantees is the part of national initiatives for all layers of the population. However, people may struggle due to the drawback of contemporary society, namely bureaucracy. To say more, this feature is obvious with additional points of officials on the racial and gender belonging of individuals (middle-class representatives in this case). This makes a barrier for further positive development of relations. In turn the economical efficiency becomes lower, and social dissatisfaction grows. The main reason is “unofficial” social inequality between individuals in English society concerned with peoples’ biases. Prejudices in some points generate the course of the state power toward improvements for representatives of one preferred or major ethnical group. On the other hand, it is a barrier for minorities in the society.
Looking at the development of relationships among representatives of the middle class in England, there are many points for discussion. First of all, an individual is evaluated by representatives of power through the “size” of a wallet. Rich people are more privileged than not so reach. It provokes an assumption about bribing, in fact. Pure Englishmen have more chances for being heard than those of different race. It is a traditional constituent of British society. Because in the governmental structures and related to them apparatus the majority of officials are of male belonging, thus, it is often difficult for a female representative of the middle class to pass through the bureaucratic machine. This is also a point for prejudices which exist in British society as well as in other countries.
This space of social communication represents the majority of Englishmen. It moves the whole internal and external economy of the country. However, this layer of the society needs more attention of the representatives of state power. In this respect the multinational colouring of the middle-class represents people from Pakistan, India, Myanmar, China and African countries. Along with the European people they create a racial formation of England and of Great Britain, on the whole. Racial diversity of all people working for the country and driving it to the success represents an advantage for England. However, it is still a point of hot discussion.
The balance of the national processes is determined owing to the interaction between the middle and the high layers of the society. Representatives of higher strata in the social division of professions or positions need feedbacks from their subordinates. Middle class also serves as the power for making a decrease of lower (poorest) layer of the society (Wolf and Silverman 37). Nevertheless, there should be a constructive dialogue between senior and lower parts in social, economic, and political domains. By means of such delicate approaches of elite echelons of power to those who directly provide the national policies appears propitious atmosphere in internal and external relations.
All in all, this large space of social relationships and intervention occupies more problems which emerge in the country. However, concepts of class, race, and gender make impacts on the social and cultural domains of people with middle-class identity. Nonetheless, the discussion represents a picture of how relationships are constructed inside one community and how they influence on other ones. This challenge should be considered from all problematic standpoints.
Works cited
Buck, Pem Davidson. Worked to the Bone: Race, Class, Power, and Privilege in Kentucky. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2001.
Mullings, Leith. “Interrogating Racism: Toward an Antiracist Anthropology.” Annual Review of Anthopology 34 (2005): 667-693.
Omi, Michael and Winant, Howard. “Racial Formation.” Homi Bahbha (1993): 123-144.
Scott, Joan. “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis.” American Historical Review 91(5), (1986): 28-50.
Thompson, Edward P. The making of the English Working Class. New York: Vintage Books, 1963.
Wolf, Eric R. “Distinguished Lecture: Facing Power – Old Insights, New Questions.” American Anthropologist, New Series 92(3), (1990): 586-596.
Wolf, Eric R. and Silverman, Sydel. Pathways of power: building an anthropology of the modern world. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 2001.