The present paper analyzes an empirical-based study on the patterns of female offending in the light of state dependence and population heterogeneity approaches to offending. The study was conducted by Gunnison and McCartan, researchers in the field of life course and female criminology, and was published in the Western Criminology Review in 2010.
The study brings together several approaches to criminology, namely, the feminist, life course, and control theories. Particularly, the authors discuss the state dependence interpretation of criminal behavior continuity in light of control-based theories, notably Hirschi’s social bond theory (Robert Lilly, Cullen & Ball, 2014, p. 115). On the other hand, the population heterogeneity explanation builds upon trait-based theories (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 46). The study also draws on gendered and feminist criminological theories. Thus, the authors take a liberal feminist stance on social control and socialization of male and female children that result in different offending patterns (Robert Lilly et al., 2014, p. 276).
The study examines female offending and, particularly, it aims to distinguish between discrete groups of offenders. The authors assume that there are two distinct patterns of female offending: persistent and late-onset. Persistent or chronic offenders are those individuals who enter into offending early on and continue with it later in their lives. On the contrary, late onset offenders get involved with crime at later stages of their lives (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 45). This distinction is significant because the two discrete groups exhibit different offending trajectories (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 46). Previously, these patterns were mostly researched with male samples, and the authors intend to cover the existing research gap by looking at female offenders.
The authors utilize a mixed-method approach to data collection and analysis. The data collection stage consisted of a series of self-report surveys of one prison’s female offenders. The surveys largely yielded quantitative data, although several open-ended questions were introduced to collect qualitative feedback from the inmates (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 49). The authors operationalized the concepts of state dependence and population heterogeneity into several variables, including physical and sexual abuse, delinquent associations, self-control, and others (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, pp. 50-51). Consequently, they used descriptive statistical methods and chi-square tests of independence to establish the link between the abovementioned variables (both juvenile and adult) and persistent and late-onset offending (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 52).
The study yielded several important findings. One of them is that prior sexual abuse is a significant predictor not only for onset into offending but also for one’s continued criminal involvement. This finding is significant because frequently, only the initial, rather than continuous, involvement in crime is attributed to sexual abuse (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 55). Consequently, this finding has important policy implications in that correctional programs, if designed to address victimization, may help reduce persistence in female offending (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 57). Similarly, the study revealed that antisocial peer associations are problematic not only for onset but also for persistence. Previously, delinquent associations were only linked to entry into offending, and only recently their link to continuous criminal involvement was established (Gunnison & McCartan, 2010, p. 56). Thus, this research provided empirical evidence to support this claim.
Overall, the study is theoretically and methodologically rigorous, although it has a significant limitation of being based on self-reported data. Nevertheless, Gunnison and McCartan make an important contribution to understanding the patterns of female offending.
References
Gunnison, E., & McCartan, M.L. (2010). Persistent versus late onset among female offenders: A test of state dependent and population heterogeneity interpretations. Western Criminology Review, 11(3). 45–62.
Robert Lilly, J., Cullen, F.T., & Ball, R.A. (2014). Criminological theory: Context and consequences (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.