Introduction
Gender inequality is a serious social problem that is observed in all countries of the world. Gender inequality is a general term describing gender-based discrimination, violence, and the negative social, economic, and health consequences of this phenomenon. The lack of equal rights between men and women negatively affects not only the democratic development of society but also the mental health of the victims. This paper shows that gender inequality has a devastating effect on the psychological state of the victims because of domestic and sexualized violence, forced labor, economic inequality, and the unavailability of abortion and contraception.
The Background of the Issue
Studying the problem of gender inequality and its adverse effects is part of the agenda for achieving social justice and a democratic and tolerant society. In recent years, activism has successfully drawn attention to this issue, and increased awareness is one way to contribute to addressing gender inequality. However, women around the world still cannot expect equal rights and attitudes, especially in developing countries (UN Women, 2021). The most relevant phenomena to this day remain domestic and sexualized violence, which harms the physical and mental health of the victim.
The problem of gender inequality has become particularly acute in recent years in connection with the COVID-19 pandemic. The growing incidence of gender-based violence is linked to the exclusion of women during the global pandemic (Sediri et al., 2020). At the same time, the gender pay gap also remains relevant, and women continue to receive less money than men based on gender discrimination issues (UN Women, 2021). The disadvantaged position of women may be a result of an ongoing process of stigmatizing norms and values regarding gender, as well as supporting opportunities and barriers created by society.
The creation of gender inequality is a socially unconscious process, fueled, among other things, by gender stereotypes. The existence of manifestations of gender inequality worldwide is a testament to the challenges of eradicating the system of public opinion (UN Women, 2021). Examining the causes of gender inequality is useful for scientific discussion and essential for raising awareness of the subtle processes that widen the gender gap.
Studying the impact of gender inequality on the psychological state of victims is an important part of drawing attention to the discriminated position of women. Mental health impairment due to discrimination, violence, and violation of rights is a factor that haunts women around the world (Vigod & Rochon, 2020). At the same time, the negative influence of this phenomenon on the moral state is not given enough attention. The harm of gender inequality on mental health may go unnoticed and underestimated. Analyzing the impact of gender inequality on psychological well-being is a crucial contribution to building a fair society for sustainable development.
Defining Gender Inequality
Gender-Based Discrimination
Gender-based discrimination and gender violence are forms of gender inequality that can be present in all areas of social life. Gender-based discrimination implies any action aimed at placing a person at a disadvantage based on gender. This category may include actions that are both intentionally and unintentionally unfair to the members of a particular gender. The justification for gender discrimination is sexism, which implies the existence of gender bias (UN Women, 2021).
Mostly, sexism is aimed at belittling women and glorifying masculinity. The main victims of discrimination based on gender are all people who associate themselves with the discriminated sex. Thus, women and transgender people all over the world are the victims of gender-based discrimination.
Gender discrimination takes place both in interpersonal communication and at the institutional or state level. In the workplace, discrimination primarily manifests as the decision to hire an employee of a certain gender or the unwillingness to pay equal wages (UN Women, 2021). Gender discrimination can start at a very young age and prevent girls and women from participating in traditionally masculine fields of study.
In interpersonal relationships, gender discrimination manifests itself in misogynistic statements or abuse (UN Women, 2021). Public sexism can be seen in obsessive behavior towards women, misogynistic statements, and harassment. State systems can allow gender discrimination to flourish and encourage inequality by creating discriminatory laws that undermine women’s rights.
Gender-Based Violence
Gender-based violence is a social phenomenon that manifests itself in violence against women solely based on gender. According to statistics compiled by the World Health Organization (WHO) (2021b), thirty percent of women have experienced physical or sexual violence during their lives. Among transgender women, this figure is significantly higher (WHO, 2021b). While the most common gender-based violence is domestic and sexualized violence, it can take many forms.
Gender-based violence includes femicide, war crimes, exploitative trafficking, mutilating medical practices, and honor killings (WHO, 2021b). Gender-based violence is the most comprehensive term that applies to any type of violence that occurs based on gender. Gender-based violence is rooted in gender inequality, is an extreme form of discrimination, violates human rights, and poses a serious risk to the health of the victims.
The Impact of Gender Inequality on Mental Health
Gender inequality has a significant negative impact on mental health. According to the statistics, on average, in world practice, women live longer than men (Ritchie & Roser, 2019). However, women are at greater risk of suffering from poor health throughout their lives (Health Assured, 2023). This fact is facilitated by existing gender discrimination and inequality in society.
One of the most obvious aspects of the negative impact is limited access to health care, which prevents victims of discrimination from receiving timely psychological assistance. Gender discrimination and its consequences are a source of stress that directly affects mental health. Women who have been discriminated against have higher depression screening scores (Vigod & Rochon, 2020). Mental consequences of discrimination include feelings of anxiety and psychological trauma (Health Assured, 2023). A traumatic situation can develop post-traumatic stress disorder, which is observed in victims of an active form of gender discrimination.
Gender Gap
The gender gap can play a key role in mental illness rates. Persons who belong to the female gender suffer from mental disorders significantly more than men (Health Assured, 2023). Depression remains the most common disorder, occurring twice as often in women as in men (Health Assured, 2023).
Anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder are also common disorders, clearly differentiated by gender (Radell et al., 2020). In addition, women are more likely to suffer from eating disorders (Health Assured, 2023). Suicide rates also differ by gender: women tend to make more suicide attempts (Health Assured, 2023). These statistics may lead to the conclusion that females, in general, are more likely to suffer from mental disorders, mainly caused by stress factors.
When considering women who are female at birth, the explanation for this high ranking of psychological illnesses may be biological factors. However, there is no such significant gap in disease rankings by gender in countries where there is increased equality between men and women (UN Women, 2021). These data may indicate that biological factors do not play a significant role, and socio-cultural affiliation is more important in forming the gender gap of mental statuses (Radell et al., 2020). Thus, discrimination and violence are factors causing mental problems in a discriminated population group.
Domestic Violence
A person’s ability to maintain mental health and well-being can be undermined by the experience of domestic violence. Domestic violence is any manifestation of physical or emotional violent behavior from a family member: husband, partner, or relative. Most often, women experience manifestations of violence from an intimate partner (Sediri et al., 2020). According to statistics, more than half of the women who are forced to seek psychiatric treatment have experienced or are experiencing intimate partner violence (Sediri et al., 2020).
The most commonly affected diagnoses are post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and a spectrum of anxiety disorders (Sediri et al., 2020). The experience of stress and violence leaves a mark on cognitive abilities and other mental aspects that may not lead to a specific diagnosis. Among the physical manifestations of impaired mental health may be difficulties in adapting to work or study, the inability to enter into subsequent healthy relationships, as well as impaired ability to experience difficulties.
The disturbed mental health of a victim of domestic violence can be used by a tyrant as a way to cause her more emotional harm. One of the most common forms of domestic violence is the infliction of mental and emotional suffering (Sediri et al., 2020). Psychological abuse may include deliberate attempts to undermine sanity, interfere with treatment, use diagnosis as a means of additional control, and discriminate against the victim because of her mental status (Heise et al., 2019). Stigmatization of persons with mental health problems can be used within the domestic violence paradigm as a means of intimidating or convincing the victim that no one will believe her.
Violence from an intimate partner is often prolonged, which makes it more difficult for the victim to get out of the traumatic situation, while the negative effect on her mental state is becoming more significant. With prolonged exposure to physical and emotional abuse, the victim may experience a sense of loss of will and control over their lives (Heise et al., 2019). The lack of control and free will can lead to a loss of connection with needs, which manifests itself in serious mental disorders.
The non-obvious mental consequences of domestic violence include sleep deprivation, eating disorders, and impaired social adaptation. Together, these factors lead to the loss of the victim’s ability to defend themselves, which provokes an increase in domestic violence (Sediri et al., 2020). With the loss of the possibility of resistance and the launch of irreversible psychological processes, the victim will not be able to independently get out of the violent circle.
Domestic violence can be directed not only from an intimate partner to a woman, but also from family members to a female child. The human ability to build a healthy life is entirely influenced by experiences in childhood and patterns of parental relationships (Heise et al., 2019). The experience of violence or its observation in the family has an extremely negative impact on the child’s psyche, which can lead to the development of mental problems in adulthood (Sediri et al., 2020). Domestic violence destroys a child’s sense of security, which is associated with the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms (Heise et al., 2019). Constant stress, fear for oneself and loved ones, causes a deep trauma to a person, which will hinder harmonious development and maturation.
Sexualized Violence
Sexualized violence is a general term for a collection of violent crimes: rape, molestation, child molestation, and other forms of non-consensual sexual contact. Rape involves sexual contact with a person who cannot consent to it (RAINN, 2019). Child molestation refers to any form of pressure on a child in order to have a sexualized experience (RAINN, 2019). Non-contact sexual abuse includes harassment and any form of sexually suggestive verbal abuse (RAINN, 2019).
Sexualized abuse may not always be a way to obtain sexual interaction, but it is often an attempt to take control of the other person’s body and emotions. Sexualized violence is predominantly committed against women and girls; 90% of victims of rape are female (Tarzia, 2021). Sexual assault is dangerous because of the low reporting rate of such crimes, as victims may choose not to go to the police out of shame and fear.
Violence, involving sexualized unwilled contact, in any form, has negative consequences for the mental health of the victim. The main stress factor for the formation of mental status disorders is a feeling of loss of control over one’s own body (McGlynn et al., 2021). Moreover, survivors may report feelings of guilt and shame and often blame themselves for the attack (Tarzia, 2021).
Sexualized violence can result in developing depression of varying severity. This condition is a consequence of the loss of a sense of bodily autonomy, hopelessness, and despair due to trauma (McGlynn et al., 2021). Believing violence to be humiliating, victims may fall into long-term depression.
Gender inequality and sexualized violence are inextricably linked because this form of hatred is the result of treating women as objects rather than as people. One of the most common and pronounced psychological consequences of sexualized violence is anxiety. The experience of severe trauma results in a feeling of fear of a recurrence of the attack. In acute forms of anxiety, affected women may experience panic attacks, which are a symptom of PTSD (Tarzia, 2021). Chronic fears, social phobia, and agoraphobia are means of mental protection, which are transformed into serious disorders (McGlynn et al., 2021).
PTSD is formed as a result of retaining strong memories of the experience of violence. In some cases, memories of traumatic experiences can be so damaging that the woman risks losing touch with the environment. A woman can also develop a complex post-traumatic stress disorder, which results in a chronic fear of abandonment in addition to the symptoms of traditional post-traumatic stress disorder (Tarzia, 2021). Some people who experience deep psychological trauma may develop symptoms of personality disorders due to the damaging effects of stress.
Sexualized violence can lead to stress that is overwhelming for the victim, which can lead to borderline personality disorder. Behaviors associated with a personality disorder may actually be an adaptation to abuse and an attempt at a defensive psychic response (Tarzia, 2021). For example, a characteristic of the borderline personality is the fear of being abandoned, which may develop as a reaction of the traumatized person. It can be difficult for survivors to form healthy attachments to others and build healthy relationships (Tarzia, 2021).
Adults who were abused as children may have insecure attachment patterns. They may resist intimacy, develop sexual dysfunction, or be afraid to enter into a relationship.
Abuse research shows that victims of sexual abuse are more likely to use drugs (Tarzia, 2021). Drugs and alcohol can relieve psychological pain after an experience of abuse, and victims may use them to help them forget the traumatic experience. However, substance abuse often leads to the development of psychological problems.
Forced Labor
Forced labor is a term describing the work that is done by a person involuntarily. At the same time, this term is applicable to situations where people are forced to work through violence, restraint, threats, or the use of physical force (ILO, 2019). Forced labor is a direct consequence of gender discrimination: due to a gender gap or a lack of choice, women are forced into slavery. An important component of the definition is the fact that labor is performed by a person not voluntarily. Jobs can refer to any activity, including those in the gray zone of the economy.
Forced labor is a modern form of slavery and can affect both adults and children (ILO, 2019). The form of forced labor that causes the most negative consequences is human trafficking and forced sexualized labor. This form of forced labor predominantly affects women and girls (Rayson & Alba, 2019). Engagement in forced labor is a criminal offense and has a negative impact on the mental health of the victim.
Involuntary labor is associated with a deep form of psychological discomfort. Most survivors experience significant psychological trauma: depression and suicidal ideation are also direct consequences of involvement in forced labor (Kiss & Zimmerman, 2019). Restriction of freedom, inhuman conditions, and coercion naturally result in post-traumatic stress, which can lead to the development of PTSD (Kiss & Zimmerman, 2019).
Women tend to report more severe mental symptoms after engaging in forced labor in the form of sex work. Guilt, shame, self-blame, and the inability to return to normal life also become natural consequences of a constant uncomfortable position. The psychological distress of the involved women may be a consequence of the complex problem of poverty and stigmatization, which pushes people into consent to forced labor.
Sex work or prostitution is often defined as forced labor or a form of modern slavery. Prostitution is classified as this type of coercive involvement because of the stigmatization, marginalization, and persecution that sex workers often face (Rayson & Alba, 2019). At the same time, the overwhelming majority of those providing sexual services are women (Rayson & Alba, 2019). The stigmatization of sex workers and its negative impacts are a direct consequence of gender inequality, as it is a form of downgrading of women’s rights.
Sex work affects the psychological well-being of the involved women. The strongest negative impact is on sex workers’ bodily autonomy and self-perception. Sex workers may face humiliation, guilt, and social isolation. Both those who are deceived into sex work and women who choose this path because of poverty can develop severe forms of depression (Rayson & Alba, 2019). One of the negative consequences is also the involvement in the use of alcohol and drugs, which also negatively affects mental well-being.
Economic Inequality
Economic inequality is often predominantly a women’s problem; this trend is explained by persistent gender discrimination, sexism, misogyny, and prejudice. The consequence of this social phenomenon is low representation in leadership positions, lack of access to quality education, and women in low-paid positions (UN Women, 2021). Gender discrimination can also lead to a deterioration in a person’s living conditions and limited access to the things they need to survive and thrive.
Compared to men, women tend to have lower incomes, which is explained by wage inequality (Ortiz-Ospina & Roser, 2019). Economic inequality not only causes additional stress but also reduces a woman’s ability to pay for medical services, including those related to mental health. Although the gender gap is narrowing, economic inequality continues to negatively affect women’s mental well-being.
The influence of socioeconomic factors on physical and mental well-being is undeniable. There is a clear relationship between social and economic inequality and poor mental health (Gibson et al., 2021). At the same time, the higher the level of income inequality, the stronger this effect is.
Economic well-being is one of the recognized social determinants that affect the mental status of a person (Gibson et al., 2021). Socioeconomic inequalities also lead to inequalities in mental health. Experiences of social and economic disadvantage may include unemployment, poverty, and poor housing conditions. All of these factors are a means of social exclusion and the promotion of inequalities that will inevitably affect the well-being of the exposed.
Of great importance is the possibility of receiving psychological assistance, which is inevitably violated in communities with unequal incomes. The lack of material resources leads to the unavailability of assistance, which is a factor that worsens mental well-being (Gibson et al., 2021). The inability to see a qualified specialist leads to an increase in symptoms and a lower likelihood of getting rid of mental problems. Discrimination against people with low incomes can also be part of the stigmatization aimed at humiliating people with mental disorders.
Denial of Abortion and Contraceptives
A serious negative effect of discrimination also manifests itself in the form of refusal to provide medical services. One such form of denial of access to health care is the denial of abortion (Todd-Gher & Shah, 2020). This is a form of manifestation of gender-based violence and ill-treatment that degrades human dignity.
Refusal to perform an abortion at the request of a woman can become a significant factor that worsens psychological well-being (WHO, 2021a). Unwanted pregnancy can lead to severe forms of mental disorders, including depression or suicidal attempts (Abrams, 2022). Raising an unwanted child will become a factor for a woman that will constantly and significantly worsen her mental well-being.
In some conservative countries, in addition to access to abortion, the availability of contraceptives is also limited. This leads to a constant stressful state, obsessive fears, and a lack of a sense of security (Abrams, 2022). Both the denial of an abortion and the denial of contraceptives constitute obstetrical abuse (Todd-Gher & Shah, 2020). Obstetric violence also refers to physical violence applied to a woman during childbirth. Post-traumatic stress disorder and postpartum depression are direct consequences of this form of gender-based violence.
An unwanted pregnancy leads to feelings of anxiety and stress, regardless of the final decision to have an abortion. At the same time, women who were denied an abortion had more psychological problems in the short term (Abrams, 2022). Women who have been denied an abortion are initially more likely to experience higher levels of anxiety, lower life satisfaction, and lower self-esteem (Todd-Gher & Shah, 2020). At the same time, the mental state can also improve over time, regardless of whether the woman was denied an abortion.
However, the experience of unwanted pregnancy in general is a mental distress that can lead to significant psychological problems (Abrams, 2022). Women who have been denied an abortion and who have given birth experience a range of social, financial, and psychological difficulties. Among women who had an abortion, most experienced either mostly positive emotions or no emotions at all about their decision to have an abortion (Todd-Gher & Shah, 2020). Thus, it becomes obvious that the refusal to have an abortion brings more traumatic emotions to the psycho-emotional state than the preservation of an unwanted pregnancy.
The decision to have an abortion can be emotionally difficult for any woman. Most people considering abortion perceive some stigma, and this stigma has been associated with psychological distress years later (Abrams, 2022). Women who felt compelled to wait to have an abortion or tell others about their pregnancy were more likely to have symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression (Todd-Gher & Shah, 2020). Having reproductive autonomy is extremely important in terms of protecting someone’s mental health and well-being (Todd-Gher & Shah, 2020). The lack of choice only causes emotional suffering, and the difficulty in having abortions is caused by gender inequality in relation to women.
Counter Argument
Achieving gender equality and combating the negative consequences of this phenomenon on women’s mental health is complicated by people who have a counter-argumentative position on this issue. Individuals holding this position have low awareness of gender inequality and its manifestations and may not recognize or pay sufficient attention to such instances (Kelan, 2020). Despite the fact that measures are being taken to increase awareness of the existing problem, some people do not believe that this phenomenon can be so widespread or have such negative consequences.
Those who deny the seriousness of the problem of gender inequality base their arguments on several factors. The first of these is the unwillingness to face the awareness of the mass character and representation of this phenomenon. Such people may think that gender discrimination and violence can develop in non-democratic countries or in companies with poor working conditions.
The second argument is based on the fact that gender inequality has existed in human history, but now it has been defeated by the efforts of civil activists. The third belief is based on the fact that gender inequality cannot exist, since women are given an advantage in employment (Kelan, 2020). Deniers may systematically ignore instances of discrimination and claim that these incidents are not related to gender-based hatred.
The counter-argument may also involve ignoring the negative consequences of gender inequality. Individuals holding such a position may have low mental health awareness or stigmatize mental disorders (Kelan, 2020). They may deny the relationship between gender inequality and negative psychological outcomes, justifying the frequency of symptoms with gender stereotypes about the sensitivity of the female psyche. These arguments are caused by the reluctance to recognize the seriousness of the problem and to make a personal contribution to its resolution. Men often hold this position, but women can also develop such self-criticism due to misogynistic attitudes.
The main argument in a dispute with people who do not recognize gender inequality should remain statistics and direct facts proving the seriousness of this problem. Proving the importance of awareness of gender inequality is necessary with a relevant example from a close and familiar environment to establish the association that inequality is ubiquitous. It can be extremely difficult to change a person’s position if it is based on hatred and misogynistic attitudes. However, social activism should also be aimed at overcoming resistance (Kelan, 2020). Raising awareness and acknowledging the issue of gender inequality can be a first step towards improving the situation and minimizing the negative effects on the mental health of discriminated women.
Conclusion
Domestic violence, forced labor, economic inequality, and the denial of abortion and contraception are extreme manifestations of gender-based hatred towards women. Gender-based discrimination and gender-based violence in various forms are stressors and traumatic factors that can lead to the development of serious psychological health consequences. The consequences of public ignorance of the existence of this problem lead to the flourishing of discrimination, violence, and hatred.
Opponents of gender equality act as a deterrent to the pursuit of global sustainable development. The problem of the impact of gender inequality on moral well-being is relevant, since it negatively affects the whole society. The consequences of gender inequality in the modern world became especially serious during the pandemic, when society faced isolation.
Despite the efforts of activists, gender equality is far from being achieved in both developed and developing countries. The first step towards combating gender inequality, its manifestations, and the negative impact on the health of victims, is awareness raising, in which this research is contributing. Gender inequality can only be minimized through joint efforts aimed at achieving a stable, tolerant, and democratic society.
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