Introduction
It is widely believed that freedom of religion or belief and gender equality are allegedly fundamentally contradictory human rights norms. This misconception can lead to severe gaps in the protection of human rights. In addition, an abstractly antagonistic misreading of the relationship between freedom of religion or belief and gender equality does not adequately represent the life situation of many millions of people whose specific needs, desires, demands, experiences, and vulnerabilities are at the intersection of both human rights. Women and girls from religious minorities and members of sexual minorities are particularly vulnerable.
The problem attracts attention over time, but it is still an essential issue for consideration. Research proves the significant influence of world religions on gender inequality and the social status of women. Firstly, this influence is manifested in all spheres of human activity: economic, political, and social. Second, the lower the percentage of people’s religious affiliation in the region, the lower the percentage of gender inequality, as shown by a study of fifty states (Klingorov & Havlicek, 2015). Differentiation in this issue of religions themselves has also indicated in this study: average gender inequality manifests in Christians and Buddhists, while a high degree is observed in Islam and Havlicek (Klingorov & Havlicek, 2015). It is worth considering these aspects separately, differentiating them in the context of each religion separately.
Gender roles are shaped by culture, which in turn is influenced by religion. The positions of the church fathers orient women’s behavior according to the values of the masculine world. Christianity initially excluded women from the sphere of management and leadership, so it seems no place for women either in medicine or in public service. Christian family culture has a vivid character, forming the specificity of gender roles. The core of the Christian teaching about the family is patriarchy. The church’s teaching is based on the strict control of a man over a woman’s reproductive function, sexual behavior, and work—Christian culture associated women exclusively with the domestic sphere, the family. There was a process of imposing gender inequality in the labor market. Christian dogmas tried to avoid women combining professional and family responsibilities. The Church insisted, emphasizing the reproductive function of women at its lowest place on the evolutionary ladder (Lewis, 2017). The gender asymmetry of the Christian family rests on the gender differentiation of Christian culture. The Church sought to prevent role conflict in the female part of society, which could shake not only the inviolability of traditional ideas about the social roles of men and women but could put pressure on the existing model of the state structure.
As it has become clear over time that the scope of the right to non-discrimination covers a broader range of grounds than was initially thought, such as sexual orientation, religion is increasingly cited as a reason for discrimination. On the other hand, religious hatred and intolerance appear to be rising, with religious radicalism increasingly seen as a driver of terrorism. Today, human rights law recognizes the right to freedom of religion and prohibits discrimination based on religious belief. However, the interaction between the right to freedom of religion and the right to be protected from discrimination remains the subject of heated debate. Current trends in Christianity are much more loyal and better aligned with current legislation (Lewis, 2017). A much more acute conflict of human rights and religious attitudes is observed in the Islamic religion.
The process of modernization in any society is determined by the framework of cultural heritage and religious traditions. In the case of post-industrial societies, there is a widespread weakening of the pressure of religious norms and values. However, attitudes towards women vary depending on the religious communities and denominations they belong to. In particular, Islamic religious heritage is one of the most formidable barriers to the rising tide of gender equality. There is an opinion that belonging to Islamic culture and religion is a stable predictor of patriarchal value orientations (Duderija, 2020). Creating equal conditions for self-realization for the population of Islamic regions has always been quite acute. Islam, which is the dominant religion in most countries in the region, views gender relations in terms of traditions and patriarchal principles, which are based on the discrimination of women against the background of men. For example, a woman is assigned the role of a man’s property, which he received from Allah. Spiritual equality between a man and a woman is possible only before Allah, but this does not exist in practice. The boundaries of what is permissible and unlawful are clearly defined with the dominant position of male culture with the help of prescriptions – from the style of clothing to family relationships.
Sharia provides for significant differences in the roles of men and women in the field of rights and responsibilities. The primary duty of a Muslim wife towards her spouse is obedience and respect (Duderija, 2020). Her duties include caring for and raising children, being obedient to her spouse, listening to his prohibitions, and not doing what he does not allow and what Allah and Sharia do not allow to do. If a Muslim does something that Allah and Sharia forbid, the wife is obliged to oppose it. For the husband to be pleased with her, the wife must strictly fulfill her duties and obey him in everything. Despite this, the impact of modern integration processes on countries with a predominantly Islamic population, the development of societies following global trends helps women in the region acquire more opportunities to exercise their rights.
It cannot be unequivocally asserted that feminism emerged due to religious aspects of gender inequality, but there was undoubtedly a particular influence. The feminist perspective has influenced the way women agree on gender roles in both the household and work and in religious services. Complementarity instead of egalitarianism has been traced in this movement for a long time (Manning, 1999). The regulation of this problem has made some progress; for example, in the UAE, women’s rights are enshrined in the primary law of the constitution, although in many other countries, the family and religious codes still prevail over legislation (Stump, 2008). Nevertheless, the problem persists to this day and requires a comprehensive solution.
Finally, another critical issue is the problem of transgender, which is poorly covered in religious teachings. Many religious communities have barely begun the process of accepting gay, lesbian, and bisexual people, and they are still far from understanding transgender. At all times, there was a certain percentage of people with anatomical sex characteristics of both sexes – the phenomenon of hermaphroditism. For example, in Islamic law, they are prescribed to fulfill those gender roles that are most appropriate to them. Some Islamic theologians even allowed such people to transform into one of the sexes (Sumerau et al., 2018). However, the situation is entirely different when we are talking not about obvious biological hermaphrodites but people with sexual dysmorphia. The Orthodox Church categorically condemns such transitions, while the Catholic Church believes that the gender reassignment procedure does not change a person’s gender in the church’s eyes. An exception is several reformist churches open to modernism.
A similar situation is observed in Judaism: Orthodox and Hasidic Judaism are highly negative concerning the permissibility of such operations. At the same time, reformists are open about such sentiments. The only denomination, the conservative part of which openly reacted to gender reassignment operations, is Shiite Islam. Surprisingly, against the background of a highly negative attitude towards homosexuality, Ayatollah Khomeini, the leader of the Islamic Revolution, considered gender reassignment surgery permissible by analogy with hermaphrodites (Draman & Hashi, 2019). In addition, in India and Pakistan, as a legacy of the Hindu caste system, there is a whole community of “hijras” – an untouchable caste, which includes different representatives of the “third sex” (Draman & Hashi, 2019). Even though most of them are considered Hindus, some consider themselves Islam. The custom obliges the hijras to perform castration rituals, which, coupled with their behavior, causes hostility among orthodox Muslims.
Hypothesis
A literature review revealed the main trends in this issue. Firstly, almost every religion, one way or another, has the idea of gender inequality from the very beginning. Secondly, religion significantly influences culture, which shapes gender roles. Finally, progress is being made on several fronts. The human rights conflict is regulated through legislative measures, which are gaining more and more power over traditional family and religious foundations. Reform church communities are opening up, accessible to everyone. Nevertheless, the problem remains relevant since, even today, the percentage of gender inequality correlated with religion remains high. As a result, the central hypothesis is that gender segregation permeates all major world religions. Differentiation occurs only in terms of the level of inequality, the dynamics of changes, and the rate of improvement on this issue. However, on the whole, this remains a global problem that requires a solution and the most important thing – time.
Discussion
The literature review showed that this hypothesis is supported both in the long-term retrospective and current trends. Religion has a wide range of mechanisms of influence on culture; however, it is noticeably weakening in comparison with the past, and the scales are shifting towards equality. Generally, gender equality is postulated by human rights codes that address discrimination against women and gender identity. The question of the solution lies in the strength of these legislative acts over other codes: moral, traditional, religious, which have been established for a long time, and society lives according to these laws. It is worth noting that workplaces in medium and large companies often have codes of conduct that eliminate discrimination and gender segregation. This activity has a positive effect in the context of the problem; however, it requires even deeper solutions affecting the psychological aspects of society, the need for traditions. Some of these questions may seem too radical, but in this case, the end justifies the means.
However, religion posits many essential values and virtues that are the foundation of modern legislation. Many representatives of transgender communities are convinced that their original message of sacred texts has only a transphobic interpretation (Draman & Hashi, 2019). This understanding could be entrenched due to ambiguous translation, the need of the majority to justify their transphobia and homophobia, or for other reasons, which ultimately boil down to the fact that people were mistaken in interpretation – intentionally or not. In addition, the understanding of texts can naturally transform because the world is changing and what was previously relevant ceases to be so. Religion is also developing dynamically, and given its impact on culture and gender roles, it must adapt to modern realities. Gender and religion form the lion’s share of a person’s identity, including ethnicity. A solution to this problem could eliminate many indirect conflicts arising in part based on discrimination, the roots of which are rooted in both gender segregation and religion.
Conclusion
This paper raised the issue of gender segregation in the context of religion. The influence of religion on gender roles in modern society was assessed, as well as the main tendencies supporting or struggling with certain aspects of established traditions. As a result, it was revealed that religions are differentiated according to a certain level of gender inequality, but the problem remains global. It is due to the fact that absolutely in every religion, one way or another, gender inequality is postulated, and only new views of the old sacred texts can give a more loyal and fair interpretation that excludes discrimination. For the most part, religion extols the core values and virtues of modern society, and therefore addressing the issue of gender segregation must be comprehensive and comprehensive.
References
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