Introduction
Genetic engineering is one of the most intriguing and dynamic areas of modern engineering science. This tool allows the manipulation of small fragments of DNA, called genes, responsible for protein synthesis (Bulcha et al., 2021). In other words, with the help of genetic engineering mechanisms, scientists can control what protein and quantities will be created in the organism whose DNA has been altered. The importance of these possibilities is difficult to question, given the fundamental biological importance of proteins to the existence of life.
In order to perform genetic manipulations, it is initially necessary to identify the gene of interest being manipulated. It can be the isolation of a gene that exists in nature, found in some organisms but not others, or the modification of such a gene. Modification can be understood as either the introduction of additional coding sequences or the deletion of existing ones, depending on the task. When a gene has been isolated and, if necessary, technologically processed, it must be placed in a plasmid, which is a bacterial vector that is a circular DNA molecule (Bulcha et al., 2021). The recombinant plasmid, which includes the gene of interest, is then placed in somatic cells, where this gene’s reverse translation and biosynthesis begin. In other words, the general essence of genetic bioengineering comes down to putting genes unnatural to them into cells, allowing them to be used as protein production factories. In the case of more complex operations, genetic engineering can edit existing genes to turn on or off the synthesis of a particular protein in the organism from which the gene was taken. However, even with such manipulations, bacterial vectors are often used, meaning that a vector is needed that can enter the cell.
Examples of Genetic Engineering
The gene manipulation technology described above is not abstract but has reasonably practical applications, which have already been demonstrated on organisms from different biological kingdoms. One of the most famous examples is Dolly the sheep, a cloned animal. The birth, or more correctly, the creation of Dolly, did not precisely follow the pattern described above but is still an example of cellular engineering in which laboratory manipulation affects organisms. Three female parent ewes were used to create the animal, each of which had to contribute to Dolly’s birth process (Belseck, 2021). The first ewe was the donor of a somatic cell subjected to the enucleation process, and the second ewe was the donor of a nucleus isolated from mammary gland cells. This nucleus was placed into the somatic cell of the first ewe, which made it possible to create an artificially fertilized cell capable of dividing. After applying an electric current to stimulate cell division, the excited cell was placed in a third ewe, which became a surrogate for Dolly. The reason for this experiment was the need to study the mechanisms of cloning since Dolly was biologically a clone of the second nucleus donor ewe; the consequence was her birth. The importance of this experiment stems from the increasing capacity of cloning laboratories, which could eventually be applied to humans as well.
Another example of the effects of genetic engineering is a plant organism, namely golden rice. To create it, the psy gene belonging to Narcissus pseudonarcissus, or in the late stages of corn, was placed into the endosperm cells of rice, resulting in a plant organism colored gold, not typical of domesticated rice. However, the goal of this experiment was not so much the color change: the psy gene is responsible for the metabolic pathway of beta-carotene synthesis, which is a precursor of vitamin A (Welsch & Li, 2022). Thus, the reason for this experiment was to create a product that would have an increased nutritional value. The consequence was the synthesis of the golden rice plant, which was not inferior in taste to the conventional product but had a different color and served as a source of vitamin A. The importance of this experiment was determined by the possibility of technologically changing agriculturally important plants to meet the need for increased nutritional value.
Ethical Issues
Biotechnology, as an opportunity to manipulate and modify life in a technologically and industrially important way, is the subject of extensive debate in the context of the ethics of such actions. One of the essential bioethical issues is the applicability of such technologies to the human embryo. Introducing alterations to the human genome can serve an excellent clinical purpose and protect against the development of hereditary diseases. However, the other side of this benefit is the possibility of misusing genetic mechanisms to edit the human genome at will, which is ideologically close to eugenics (Anomaly, 2018). Human life is an absolute right; in this case, scientists are interfering with that life and making changes that can have different consequences. The only solution so far relevant to postponing this ethical dilemma is a ban on genetic manipulation of the human body, regardless of the purpose of such procedures. In the longer term, any genetic manipulation of the embryo must take place with the strict consent of both parents and under the supervision of an independent and incorruptible multidisciplinary committee giving unanimous approval.
A second crucial bioethical issue of gene therapy is the potential impact on widening the gap between rich and poor. Genetic engineering, when allowed for humans, will be expensive. It follows that only affluent patients will be able to afford the beneficial clinical procedures, that is, they will be the ultimate beneficiaries (Ebeling & Gebhard, 2022). In contrast, low-income and poor people with no financial means will have zero access to genetic engineering procedures, widening the gap between the two economic cohorts. Overall, this situation will lead to the recovery of the rich and the gradual extinction of the poor due to the accumulation of inherited diseases. A solution to this problem could be the introduction of government quotas for procedures that increase access for poor people.
Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering has many advantages, which allow developing this direction of science. Firstly, it makes it possible to increase the nutritional value of agricultural raw materials, as was the case with golden rice. Second, it creates opportunities for cloning animals and plants, which is especially relevant to paleontological scientists and pet owners experiencing the loss of their animal, as was the case with Dolly, the sheep. Third, it allows the removal of unnecessary or environmentally damaging genes in organisms, as was the case with cows, which produced less methane after manipulation (Lex, 2009). Fourth, it helps to edit the genome of existing species to give them industrially essential traits, as has been done for North Atlantic salmon, which show a higher growth rate (Soga et al., 2020).
However, such techniques also have several disadvantages that affect the feasibility of their widespread application. First, such experiments require many victims: Dolly the sheep was the 29th sample, the only successful one in this series. Second, it raises many ethical dilemmas, as with genetically edited Chinese twin children (Normile, 2019). Third, engineering can lead to the development of allergic reactions in the consumer if an alien gene has been introduced into the product; for example, allergies to a specific protein in citrus products, the responsible gene for which has been introduced into the apple. Finally, the GMO market can be challenging to control, resulting in a counterfeit and low-quality product, as was the case with StarLink corn (Redick, 2021).
Conclusion
Biological sciences are evolving rapidly, creating expanded opportunities for the scientific and consumer communities. One of the critical areas of modern biotechnology is genetic engineering, which can manipulate the biological characteristics of life. Genetic procedures make it possible to control the synthesis of proteins in plant and animal organisms, depending on the goal set. The implementation of these procedures is conducted according to different schemes. However, it generally boils down to introducing artificial changes through the gene of interest to the target organism. In the present work, various examples of such manipulations were considered, from improving the nutritional value of rice to cloning an animal.
Such technologies will create a comprehensive response in society. One part of society is favorably disposed toward genetic engineering because it sees its benefits for industry and the clinical industry. Others, by contrast, have justifiable concerns about the long-term consequences of introducing change and the ethics of such manipulation in general. Bioethics, the science of ethics, including genetic engineering, formulates many dilemmas, not all of which can be resolved now. This paper proposes two critical bioethical problems and provides recommendations for solving them.
References
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