Abstract
Oceania is the smallest known part of the world, localized in the southern hemisphere; meanwhile, it is the biggest concentration of islands on the planet. Historical development of lands took place in isolation, and Europeans opened these territories much later than others. It has enabled the peoples of Oceania to preserve many traditions and cultural identities. The individual mentality of the Oceanians must be considered in view of the many nuances that form the overall picture – unlike any others in the world.
Geography
Oceania is a geographical region of the planet that is located in the central and western parts of the Pacific Ocean and is mostly composed of a large number of small islands and atolls (Cummins & Capic, 2017). It is surrounded by many seas of the Pacific and Indian oceans. The total area of Australia and Oceania is more than 8 million square kilometers, and the population is more than 40 million (“World Population prospects,” 2020).
Australia is a continent located in the Eastern hemisphere and washed by the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the smallest and farthest from the other continents on the globe. Even before colonization, thinkers were confident of the existence of an extensive array of land in the south and called it “terra australis incognita” – an unknown southern land (Oliver, 1989). This Latin phrase gave rise to the common name that is used around the world.
Like America, Australia could not be inhabited by humans as a result of evolution, but only from the outside. Its ancient and modern fauna lacks not only primates but also all higher mammals. No trace of the early Paleolithic was found within the area. All known finds of human fossil residues have Homo sapiens traits and belong to the Upper Palaeolithic times. Undoubtedly, Australia could only be inhabited from the north, that is, from the side of Southeast Asia (Cummins & Capic, 2017). A continental shelf Sahul connected Australia with New Guinea and neighboring islands. This moment created an opportunity for people to come to those lands.
Melanesia, or from the Greek “black islands,” is a set of island groups in the Pacific Ocean northeast of Australia with nearly 300 square miles of area and 4 million population (“World Population prospects,” 2020). The largest of them are New Guinea, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, New Hebrides (Vanuatu), Fiji. There are tropical, subequatorial, equatorial climates and diverse ecosystems. Micronesia includes about 1500 islands, a total area of which is more than 1 thousand square miles. Translated from ancient Greek, the name means “little island.” (D’Arcy, 2017) Polynesia (translated from Greek as “many islands”) is a subregion that includes more than a thousand islands, with an area of more than 10 thousand square miles.
Within Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia, only a few islands are of mainland origin – Tasmania, New Caledonia, New Zealand, New Guinea. Coral islands or atolls (coral islands with a lagoon in the center) are typical – Marshall, Mariana, Gilbert Islands (Oliver, 1989). The predominant type of island in Oceania is volcanic. They are the peaks of extinct or active volcanoes, for example, Tahiti, Samoa. Mountain and heavily dismembered relief prevail, making economic development of the land difficult (Oliver, 1989). Moreover, the territory is located in the contact zone of the lithosphere plates. In seismically active zones, there is a phenomenon of vulcanism, quite frequent earthquakes, and tsunami. Natural disasters cause damage to the household and cause significant losses among the population.
Peoples
Oceania is populated by a large number of peoples, which vary significantly in racial, historical, linguistic, and cultural relations. They can be divided into two roughly equal groups: Aboriginal and immigrants. The indigenous population of Oceania belongs to Polynesian, Melanesian, and Micronesian anthropological types (Oliver, 1989). Some of the locals speak Malay-Polynesian languages, and the other part speaks Papuan languages.
Australia
Australia’s population is more than 18 million. 97% of the population is Europeans and their English-Australian descendants, and only about 2% is indigenous Aboriginal (“World Population prospects,” 2020). Australian Aboriginal people belong to a particular race – Australo-Melanesian. Their characteristic features are dark brown skin, black wavy hair, thick beards in men, big facial features – wide nose, thick lips, and prominent brow.
Melanesia
Melanesia in science is allocated to the special subregion mainly because of the racial criterion: its name – in ancient Greek “black islands” – indicates the dark tone of the skin of the inhabitants(Oliver, 1989). Melanesians make up the Oceanic branch of the equatorial race that formed at the junction between Southeast Asia and Oceania. By the beginning of European colonization, Melanesians had a primitive-communal system dominantly; however, the collapse of maternity relations had already begun. The subregion is dominated by a paternal genus. The genus with a maternal account of kinship and descent is infrequent and usually in more socially and economically developed societies.
Polynesia
In physical appearance, Polynesians differ from Melanesians. They are tall, have brown skin with a yellowish tint, wavy hair. They are isolated into a Polynesian small race intermediate between the equatorial and the oriental. In language, Polynesians make up one group (Oliver, 1989). Despite the big distances separating the archipelago, the dialects of their population differ only in small phonetic features. The entire Polynesian group of languages is related to the languages of the peoples of Indonesia. Polynesian society has been divided into castes in the past.
Micronesia
The population of Micronesia by anthropological type and culture is a mixed group. The physical appearance of Micronesians combines signs of Melanesian, Indonesian, and Polynesian origin. In language, Micronesians are part of the Malay-Polynesian family (Oliver, 1989). The characteristic of the traditional social structure of the peoples of Micronesia consists of the combination of archaic ancestral elements with class-caste formations and the traditions of chiefs.
Culture
Australia
Aboriginal spiritual life is extremely complex. One of its most essential aspects is totemism. It is the belief in special sacred bonds between a group of people and any object of surrounding nature – most often a species of animal or plant. Aboriginal people do not recognize the inevitable death of a person (Oliver, 1989). According to their beliefs, the souls of the dead return to the place where they came from – to totemic centers and can eventually become people again. Such ideas are contained in religious consciousness in science called reincarnation.
The birth of a baby, according to Aboriginal people, does not yet mean the appearance of a person. It is possible to become a person thoroughly only after the rites of initiation. During these rites, the boys are subjected to physical endurance tests. They are also introduced to sacred myths (stories, legends about the world, its origin, and its heroes). Boys receive real male names and unique signs of dedication on their bodies in the form of scars on the skin, bred front teeth, and others.
A central place in the life of Australians was occupied by public entertainment – celebrations with dances and songs, so-called corroboree (D’Arcy, 2017). Australians have also created rich folklore and traditions. In addition to totemic myths, there were also stories about the origin of certain customs, as well as fairy tales, which included animals, skylights, and forces of nature. The painting of Australians, which depicted mainly animals and hunting scenes, is very expressive. It is unique to receive an image of an animal with translucent internal organs and skeleton. Love for ornaments found expression in body painting and wearing masks during rite ceremonies and corroboree.
Oceania
Oceania’s contacts with other areas of the Earth and between parts were challenging. For this reason, the cultures and customs of the peoples of Oceania are very distinct and diverse. The culture of the peoples of Oceania is closely related to their beliefs (D’Arcy, 2017). The essence of beliefs lies in the respect to the dead and the honoring of ancestors. The world of the living is strongly connected to the world of the dead, and the second actively participates in the life of the first.
Tattoos
Special attention in Oceania’s culture is paid to tattoos. When Europeans first met Oceania’s indigenous people, they were struck by the openness of their clothing. The body of the Oceanian was open so that tattoos could be read on it. Tattoos depicted all the attributes and achievements of the social life of their owner: marital status, occupation, number of children or, even number of beheaded enemies (Oliver, 1989). Today, Oceanic tattoos are famous worldwide among lovers of this art, who specifically visit remote islands in the heart of the Pacific Ocean for exotic drawing.
Mana
The concept of mana was predominantly spread among Polynesians and Melanesians. Besides, it was associated with ancestor cults and cannibalism that were practiced throughout Oceania before the arrival of Europeans. People ate people, not for the taste or replenishment of protein deficiency, but for the desire to increase their own weight in the maternity community, which was marked by the concept of “mana.” It is some kind of life force, able to pass not only from generation to generation or be distributed among relatives through committing rites of veneration of ancestors, but also to give from one stranger to another – by its literal absorption (Oliver, 1989). Mana can both accumulate and evaporate. The owner of strong mana is a leader who enjoys a unique position among the breeders. And the more his mana, the more he evokes reverence from his fellow tribesmen. Now the concept of mana is more related to personal authority and character.
Polynesia
Despite the islands’ limited natural resources, particularly the lack of metals, Polynesians managed to create a relatively high culture. The main traditional economic activities are tropical farming, sometimes using fertilizers and artificial irrigation (cultivation of yams, bread tree, bananas, sweet potato, and others). The most crucial job was fishing; for example, Kiribati hunted sharks and octopuses.
The concept of polytheism defines the religion of Polynesians. They worshiped a large number (several hundred) of gods, but the main gods on almost all the islands of Polynesia are the next four: the solar god, god of war, god patron of farming, and god creator of Earth and humans (Oliver, 1989). The whole surrounding world in the representation of Polynesians was divided into two categories: moa (sacred) and noa (simple). Everything relating to moa is considered to belong to gods, kings, nobles, and priests, so it is declared forbidden for ordinary people, subject to taboo.
Melanesia
The primary type of traditional livelihood is hand farming: the population grows yams, cassava, coconut palm, banana, and other cultures. An ax, a tether knife, a simple stick were used to treat the ground (Oliver, 1989). It was enough as the land was always moistened with rain. However, irrigation farming was used in some areas. They are engaged in fishing, harvesting shellfish. They breed dogs, cats, chickens, pigs, some sheep, and the most important animal – a pig. Among the traditional crafts are the manufacture of boats, pottery, the braiding mats.
Melanesians created vibrant ornamental art. It was expressed in wood and bone carving, tool decorations. Usually, an ornament is a stylized image of birds, fish, a human figure, and a face. Another aspect of their culture – dancing imitating fighting or movements during work – was the main content of folk celebrations, which were accompanied by expressive music on drums, flutes, and shells.
Micronesia
Natural conditions, poor resources were not beneficial for the development of a wealthy economy. Only the ocean could give a lot, and on the islands grew mainly palm trees, bamboo, and pandanus (Oliver, 1989). For this reason, fishing and shipbuilding occupied an essential place in the life of the islanders. There were boats of different types: sailing, large rowing boats, catamarans, etc. Sails were made of the pandanus’s leaves. In Palau and the Yap Islands, canoes and bamboo rafts were used. For a sea trip, one atoll could shell up to 80 boats.
A notable feature of the traditional culture of the peoples of Micronesia is the significant development of exchange relations, the means of which were primitive money in the form of shells, circles from turtle shells, mats. The unusual stone money of Yap Islands, which are disks of different diameters with a hole in the center, was especially popular (Lilley, 2017). There are still giant (up to 3 m or more in diameter) stone discs that can be seen in many villages of the island. Most valued was the money made on Guam Island and brought from there. In the past, such money was possessed not by individuals, but by large kinship groups, men’s unions, and communities.
Conclusion
The islands of Australia and Oceania, which lie in the Pacific Ocean, are divided into three broad groups: Australia, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. The societies formed in the region are characterized by an extreme diversity of cultures and languages. Oceania is history’s most unfathomable experiment. In just a century, islanders had to go from cannibalism to some new social order. The modern culture of the peoples of Australia and Oceania, to varying degrees, preserved its identity and uniqueness. In remote islands and territories, where European influence was minimal (deep in Australia or in New Guinea), the customs and traditions of the local population remained almost unchanged. In those states where the impact of European culture was more substantial (New Zealand, Tahiti, Hawaii), popular culture has undergone a significant transformation, and now one can only observe the remnants of once-original traditions and rites.
References
Cummins R.A., & Capic T. (2017). The History of Well-Being in Oceania. In: Estes R., Sirgy M. (eds) The Pursuit of Human Well-Being. International Handbooks of Quality-of-Life. (pp. 453-491). Springer, Cham.
D’Arcy, P. (Ed.) (2017). Peoples of the Pacific: the history of Oceania to 1870. Routledge.
Lilley, I. (2017). World Heritage and Cultural Diversity in Oceania. Claroscuro, 16, 1-28.
Oliver, D. L. (1989). Oceania: the native cultures of Australia and the Pacific Islands (Vol. 1). University of Hawaii Press.
World Population prospects – Population division. (2020). Web.