Introduction
This paper is based on two main learning theories; the operant learning and socialization theories that conceptualize learning as an outcome of inter-linked outside processes and the theory of cognitive science where learning is perceived as an expression that is developed from one’s inner processes. In both theories growth and change are presented as an ongoing learning process.
Use of and research on principles of instruction based on behaviorism
Behaviorism is a concept that is mainly propagated through operant learning and socialization theories. In this case, learning is shaped by outside processes. The model was first evolved in the early 20th century and it takes observation, as the basic ingredient of learning. This means that one learns through observation and behavior change, which is related to expected consequences. Learning can therefore be altered by changing the observable conditions within which an organism is based. This is because the environmental stimulus that precedes behavior change dictates whether or not the said behavior shall be reinforced. Discriminative stimuli are those events that precede a behavior change and influence the learning activities negatively. In such a case the observed event blocks the learning process. Motivating operations on the other hand enhances learning. Positive reinforcement in the learned behavior is witnessed when such operations are increased within the learning environment (Gold, 1989).
The basic principles of behaviorism
According to this theory, learning involves continuous interactions between the organism and its environment. The history of this interaction effectively sets the stage for the organism’s way of response, the resultant behavior, and consequences within that set of stimulus conditions. The significance of the environment becomes more and more prominent in the later stages of development. The consequences then help in the further shaping of the behavior change. Therefore according to this theory, an organism can be seen as a coordinated response system that responds within the parameters set by its biology but acts on its environment about current stimulus events and previous learning (Hebb, 1949).
Pavlov research and findings
This theory was demonstrated through Ivan Pavlov’s research with dogs. Pavlov could ring a bell whenever he was feeding his dogs. After this process was repeated for some time, the dogs were conditioned and started relating food with the bell. This was because from what the dogs had observed from history a bell and food used to come at the same time and therefore both were related. The bell eventually could by itself reinforce and stimulate the behavior of the dogs towards food. After sometimes Pavlov discovered that the use of the bell without food made the dogs have similar behavior as when they had seen food. The dogs would salivate and gather together at the feeding points, with clear signs of hunger. In a similar occurrence, learners in modern schools today have learned to associate stimuli events and environment to behavior change. A lunch or tea break bell elicits hunger or thirst among the learners and inhibits any qualitative further classroom learning (Squire, 1999).
Values and Limitations in educational practices
This theory has won support from many educators as having a proven set of universally applicable methods. The theory emphasizes the teaching process and the teacher’s role in delivering curriculum, with the learner as the recipient of the disseminated knowledge and skills. According to the propagations of this theory, a teacher in a modern school learning environment needs to set the structure and deliveries of instruction expected for learning and stimulate attention to those stimuli that support learning behavior, like individualized data collection. The teacher should always be consistent with all students and emphasize the precision of the defined learning outcomes.
Information processing
This is based on the cognitive science theory, the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior. Here, learning is conceptualized as an expression of inner processes, ad it includes psychology, Neuroscience, Artificial intelligence, Anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics.
The basic principles of Cognitive Science
The theory is based on how bits of information is processed, its capacity, storage, retrieval, and use. Information and information processes are allocated to hypothetical short- and long-term memories. However the theory propagates that there is no specific location for certain kinds of information or knowledge, but there are tremendous individual variation inactivation processes related to complex forms of information. Specific areas of the brain are seen as important for certain processes. When a learner interacts with the environment, networks of neurons form relationships that react to the incoming stimulation, through parallel activation. Once this is stored in the brain than learning is said to have occurred.
Research and findings
This theory was first propagated by Socrates between 469 BC and 388 BC, where learning was to be through dialogue and questioning. Rene Descartes coined the concept of dualism arguing that organisms are made up of mind and body. This concept was furthered by Gustav Fechner who found that the mind could be subjected to exact experiments and that its activity could be described with mathematical equations. It is here and through these activities that learning and forgetting take place. The Turing machine experiments gave birth to the concept of artificial intelligence that confirms that learning is a deliberate effort and it is a continuous process (McGaugh, 1997).
Values and Limitations in educational practices
Information processing as a concept in Cognitive science theory has proved as a valuable tool in Education. The process is used in the development of understanding learning and forgetting. This has formed the basis of evaluating the modern school objectives and developing value-based curriculums for schools. I addition, the concept helps in the understanding of learners’ differences and aids in of relevant development of instructional context based on such differences.
References
Gold, P. E and McGaugh, J. L. (1989). Psychoendocrinology, Academic Press, New York.
Hebb, D. O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior. WileyPress, New York.
McGaugh J. L. (1997). Recent Advances in Learning and Retention. Natl. Acad. New York.
Squire, L. R. and Kandel, E. R. (1999). Memory from Mind to Molecules. New York.