Introduction
The formation of religious traditions is influenced by the characteristics of the culture in which the religion appears and develops. Hinduism and Buddhism belong to the dharmic Indian religions, differing in origin and some tenets. Despite the differences between Buddhism and Hinduism, there are similarities in conceptual ideas and particulars. This makes it possible to analyze and compare such universal concepts as samsara and nirvana and karma and rebirth. These terms are most often associated with dharmic religious movements. Accordingly, this paper aims to identify the characteristics of the mentioned pairs and compare them in the traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism.
Overview of Hinduism and Buddhism
Hinduism emerged as a nationally oriented religious current formed to find a harmonious coexistence of different beliefs. Hindu philosophical systems constitute the world; otherwise objectify themselves, reaching the degree of cultural autonomy and obviousness that gives them the status of cultural artifact (Molloy, 2020). Unlike the Abrahamic religions, Hinduism has no founder, no unified belief system, and no common doctrine. Buddhism is a non-theistic religion, which means it denies the existence of God and the eternal soul. Buddhism is a world religion; therefore, people of any nationality can become Buddhist. Buddhism, which was at first one of the many currents opposing Hinduism, had become a radical reform doctrine, both intellectually and spiritually, and socially (Harris, 2018). The Buddhists placed the ethical merits of the above individual origin, rejecting the varna system and the authority of the Brahmans.
Samsara and Nirvana
Sansara or samsara (wandering) is the cycle of birth and death in worlds bounded by karma. One of the basic concepts in Indian philosophy: the soul, drowning in the “ocean of samsara,” seeks liberation (moksha) and deliverance from the results of its past actions (karma), which are part of the “net of samsara” (Molloy, 2020). This wheel does not move because of an outside force but due to people’s actions. Negative actions entail birth in the lower worlds: animals, hungry spirits, and hellish worlds. Positive ones lead to rebirth in the higher worlds: gods, demigods, and humans. Sansara is described as a unity of six states of mind, to which a seventh state, the bardo, is sometimes added.
In Hinduism, sansara is treated precisely as a vicious circle from which one must leave to reach the abode of God. One can achieve it either by meditation, recourse to yoga, or endless love and selfless service to God. Avidya (ignorance) is considered to be the cause of the soul (jiva) in samsara (Habib, 2020). It manifests itself in the individual’s ignorance of his true self (the Atman) and identification with the mortal material body. Unlike the body, the Atmana does not change or reincarnate, which can fall into either good or stormy conditions. The goal of the teachings is self-release (moksha), which will allow one to break free from the wheel of samsara.
In Buddhism, samsara is somewhat different: samsara is a world of suffering (dukkha), passions, and unfreedom, inextricably linked to the repetitive cycle of birth and death. Sansara is presented as a twelvefold form of existence in which one is responsible for each successive rebirth. As in Hinduism, Buddhism suggests that the journey through samsara is a consequence of one’s ignorance of one’s true self (Bodewitz, 2019). This leads to an endless cycle of suffering, which can only be escaped through nirvana. Unlike Hinduism, everything is subject to change in Buddhism: in particular, the true self can transform itself and become a “non-self” – Anatta (Harris, 2018). Only through the attainment of nirvana and the comprehension of Anatta can one escape from the wheel of samsara.
Nirvana (extinction) signifies the goal of the “path of liberation” and the completion of the religious life, a kind of supreme holiness. Nirvana is a natural part of the wheel of samsara, but one cannot attain it, though all should strive for it (Molloy, 2020). Nirvana, which is realizable while the adept is still alive after his “enlightenment,” culminates in the ultimate nirvana after the dissolution of his last body, parinirvana. Although the concept is associated with attenuation, it is the primary goal of any dharmic teaching.
Hinduism lacks the term nirvana itself, but ancient texts mention the concept of nirvana. As previously mentioned, the term used is moksha, which is liberation from the cycle of Sansara. It is not associated with emptiness or attenuation, although it is a stilling of the mind. Hindu texts use moksha as synonymous with knowledge of the Atman and acceptance of its universality (Habib, 2020). Moksha is the release of a soul that possesses actual knowledge and can be one with Brahman. Three paths are said to lead to the state of freedom: knowledge, devotion, and action. Each path guides the individual’s rebirth into a free essence capable of dialogue with the Buddha.
Buddhism uses the term nirvana differently: attenuation and inactivity, complete peace. It is a more logical term because in Buddhism and samsara is a cycle of suffering, not the usual cycle of things as in Hinduism. It is the cessation of all the dark thoughts and burdens that one has had to endure. As in Hinduism, there are three ways to go to nirvana – extinguishing raga (greed), dwesh (aversion), and mokha (ignorance) (Bodewitz, 2019). Liberation can only be achieved after total abandonment of the self because nirvana leads to emptiness and the destruction of desires.
Karma and Rebirth
Karma is one of the central concepts in Indian philosophical and religious movements. It is a kind of law that defines the conditions for rebirth: all actions have consequences, and the teachings of karma teach thoughtfulness about one’s decisions (Molloy, 2020). The term is used to justify the connections between multiple destinies and their intertwining and is an aspect of the movement of the wheel of samsara. The production of any karma is possible only up to the state of nirvana/moksha; after their occurrence, there are no consequences of the action.
In Hinduism, karma has a spiritual origin and describes people’s actions by free will, thereby creating their destiny. Karma is divided into three kinds – sanchita (accumulated), prarabadha (bearing fruit), and kriyamana (gathering at the moment) (Bodewitz, 2019). The entire kriyamana is converted into sanchita, and based on this, one is reborn later in life. Deeds that have not yet had time to bring forth karma limit one to rebirth; acts with prarabadha karma are paramount (Habib, 2020). A jiva cannot attain moksha until all the accumulated sanchita karma is spent and bears fruit, determining the vector of rebirth.
In Buddhism, karma is the natural law that binds human actions in all their forms and predetermines the characteristics of future rebirth. As in Hinduism, the fruits of efforts determine a person’s future path, but the Buddha distinguished four categories of karma based on its results rather than type. Thus, there are dark karma with dark results, bright karma with bright results, a combination of these with dark and bright results, and karma with no definite effect (Bodewitz, 2019). The fundamental law of karma is that bad actions do not lead to good consequences. Just as in Hinduism, karma is the result of conscious intention, which goes through stages of maturation (vipaka) and fruit formation (phala) (Harris, 2018). Previously accumulated karma is the imprint that can influence future actions.
As can be seen, the concept of karma and rebirth are completely interrelated, and in Hinduism and Buddhism karma is the opportunity to form a favorable rebirth. The cycle of birth and death is perceived as a natural phenomenon. In Hinduism, rebirth appears as the transmigration of souls (Punarjanma), and it will continue until one no longer identifies with matter (quote). In Buddhism, rebirth is described as a new soul formation (Punarbhava), which lasts until nirvana (Bodewitz, 2019). In addition, attaining the awakened state (bodhi) is not possible in one lifetime; it takes hundreds of years to reach it. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhist teachings include the concepts of the six worlds, which have to be repeated many times before the right path can be found.
Conclusion
Hinduism and Buddhism are similar religious teachings based on how an individual goes through the path of life. In Hinduism, samsara exists as a continuous stream in which the individual exists until they find the true eternal self; in Buddhism, eternity is denied, and samsara is a cycle of torment. As a term, nirvana is present only in Buddhism; Hinduism uses moksha. The relationship between karma and rebirth is pretty much the same in both currents, but the concept of worlds and the division of types of karma are different. I am close to the idea of karma even though I don’t believe in rebirth; however, I think that the wheel of samsara does exist. It is reflected in the actions one performs because one does not want to change and find enlightenment.
References
Bodewitz, H. (2019). The Hindu doctrine of transmigration: Its origin and background. In D. Heilijgers, J. Houben, & K. van Kooij (Eds.), Vedic Cosmology and Ethics: Selected Studies (3–20). Brill.
Habib, I. (2020). Interpreting Indian history. Social Scientist, 48(9/10), 3–12.
Harris, S. E. (2018). Promising across lives to save non-existent beings: Identity, rebirth, and the Bodhisattva’s vow. Philosophy East and West, 68(2), 386–407.
Molloy, M. (2020). Experiencing the world’s religions: Tradition, challenge, and change (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.