Introduction
Throughout history, human civilizations tended to make breakthroughs that later permeated all other communities in the world, being refined for centuries. For instance, agriculture, writing, and other experiences of human communities were universal and were constantly developed to make these activities less strenuous. As a result, while there are parts of human societies that differ, there are elements that can be seen as integral parts of some nations. For centuries, civilizations were developing based on slave labor, writing, and trade, with the latter helping, spread innovations to all parts of the world.
Human and Social Experiences and Activities
Perspectives of Slavery as Social Experience
The first social experience that is worth analyzing is slavery. Several forms of work prevailed in Mesopotamia during the majority of its existence (c. 3500-100 B.C.): autonomous labor performed by freed peasants and artisans, semi-free population work, and slave labor (Freamon 2019). Slavery was a kind of socioeconomic need and individual reliance in Mesopotamia, and the slave was denied the tools of an industry that were accessible to other people in the community. Several indigenous peoples were forced into indentured servitude, which was often only permitted for a set amount of time under the rule (Freamon 2019). If a man could not pay his obligations, his offspring would be enslaved as well (Freamon 2019). Moreover, slavery was a part of the Mesopotamian laws, stating the following: “If a man sell a slave girl for money, and […] she has borne children, [the seller] shall in addition pay for each child one half shekel” (Fordham University n.d.). Therefore, slavery was legal, and anyone could be at risk of becoming enslaved.
The trend of using slaves persisted after centuries of the Mesopotamian civilization. From 27 BC to AD 476 in Rome, slaves could arrive from places that were beyond its borders, including Ireland, Scotland, Eastern European nations, the Black Sea region, the Arabian Peninsula, and Africa (The British Museum n.d.-a). Slaves were considered the possessions of their owners and had no individual freedoms under Roman law. Slaves were not allowed to possess land legally, sign contracts, or get married, so they could be sold, traded, and tortured at will (The British Museum n.d.-a). The majority of what people now know derives from writings that were produced by experts. The primary source coming from The British Museum shows a description of labor conditions in Spanish mines. The source was written by the historian Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BC: “… the slaves […] wear out their bodies […], dying in large numbers because of the exceptional hardships they endure” (The British Museum n.d.-a). Therefore, the Roman laws established that slaves could not be treated as humans.
Finally, during the Renaissance period, slavery still existed in Europe. Mostly in all civilized cultures, for the majority of the medieval period, which is between 500 C.E. and 1420 C.E., slavery was well-established (Burnard 2022). Medieval Europeans retained their slaves, slave trafficking, and enslaved non-Europeans and other Europeans far into the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They employed slaves for household, sexual, reproductive, and militaristic work in addition to agricultural and industrial work (Barker 2019). However, with the Black Death, the enslaved population was significantly reduced, which contributed to the decreasing enslavement trend (Barker 2019). Therefore, the fourteenth century was the turning point for slavery.
Perspectives of Writing as Human Activity
Other human experiences worth mentioning involve writing, which originated in the Sumerian civilization. In 3000 B.C., writing first appeared in the Sumerian settlements (The British Museum 2019). The gathering and distribution of nutritional resources in the cities were documented in this literature. Pictograms, or straightforward images that depict items, were utilized in the earliest Sumerian writings (The British Museum 2019). These pictorial representations were gradually transformed into a wedge-shaped writing system (The British Museum 2019). This script is referred to as cuneiform, and the symbols used in cuneiform were syllables that could be joined to form words or used alone to indicate whole words (The British Museum 2019). The British Museum has a tablet from the third millennium BCE on display. Texts discussing meals often use the symbol of a human head with a triangle item in front of it (The British Museum n.d.-b). This primary source illustrates the efforts of people to depict their routines.
Then, with the emergence of the Roman imperial time, the diversity of writing and writing media was established. There are not many inscriptions from the Roman Republic still in existence. Nevertheless, most of them date to the imperial era, which ran from the reign of Augustus the First through the third century A.D. (The Met n.d.-b). The range of uses for the writings themselves matches the diversity of the inscriptional medium (rock, metals, ceramics, mosaics, murals, glassware, hardwood, and papyrus) (The Met n.d.-b). Among the works are tributes to the gods or rulers, the printing of government papers, including imperial letters and regulations, the names and positions of the emperors on coins, military diplomas, and Roman soldier’s discharge papers (The Met n.d.-b). Among the primary sources from this time are the bronze military diplomas. The tablets can be seen in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which shows one tablet from 149 A.D., wherein after 25 years of service in auxiliary forces, Emperor Antoninus Pius awarded discharged foreign-born soldiers Roman citizenship (The Met n.d.-a). Therefore, writing permeated every sphere of people’s lives in the Roman empire.
Finally, Roman inscriptions served as the prototype for all subsequent Latin-language writing. This was particularly so during the Renaissance when the practice of placing public inscriptions was reintroduced, and the advent of printing allowed for the widest possible dissemination of the written word (The Met n.d.-b). Besides the fact that the Latin language served as the foundation for western European civilization, the Latin alphabet spread throughout the world due to its clarity, concision, and readability (The Met n.d.-b). Thus, this shows that a breakthrough in one nation always has an impact on others.
Global Relations Impact on Individual Lives and the Lives of Others
The Roman empire, along with other European, Middle Eastern, and Asian empires, such as the well-known Han dynasty, all participated in the significant development of global commerce. This was established by the end of the first century B.C. and impacted not only a few individuals but whole nations (The Met, n.d.-c). These governments propagated concepts, religions, and practices among many communities as they grew, and expensive items were transported across great distances via commerce, exchanges, gift-giving, and the payment of respect (The Met, n.d.-c). The exchange, delivery, and storage of products were made possible by an extensive network of strategically positioned trade stations or emporia (The Met, n.d.-c). Thus, over time, global relations impacted individual lives and the lives of others via the trade of luxury items, foods, and revolutionary objects, such as compasses and gunpowder.
Finally, when it comes to theories on global processes and systems, there are plenty. For instance, according to the World’s Systems Theory, nations may better understand existing economic cooperation with one another by categorizing them into several socioeconomic groups, which are Core, Semi-Periphery, and Periphery (Sage 2022). In turn, the internal dynamics and causes of socioeconomic growth are highlighted by Modernization Theory (Sage 2022). In a manner similar to that of the World’s Systems Theory, advocates of the Modernization Theory assert that contemporary nations are more prosperous and powerful and that this freedom allows their populations to live in societies with improved standards of life (Sage 2022). However, the World’s Systems Theory places major emphasis on the core, developed countries. In comparison, Modernization Theory contends that traditional civilizations will advance as they incorporate more sophisticated techniques (Sage 2022). Therefore, while one focuses on developed countries, another theory accentuates emerging nations.
Conclusion
Hence, slave labor, writing, and trade were the foundations of civilizations for millennia, with trade serving as a means of disseminating new ideas around the globe. Slavery is the first social phenomenon that requires analysis. The slaves could not be considered humans, according to Mesopotamian and Roman law. The fourteenth century, however, marked a turning point for slavery. Then, the Sumerian civilization is where writing first appeared, and it is one of the other noteworthy human experiences. All later Latin-language writing was modeled after Roman inscriptions. Over time, commerce in luxury goods, foods, and revolutionary goods, including compasses and gunpowder, had an influence on people’s lives as well as the lives of others. The World’s Systems Theory and Modernization Theory are the final two theories on global dynamics. Although one view emphasizes the industrialized nations, another hypothesis places more emphasis on the rising countries.
References
Barker, Hannah. 2019. Slavery in Medieval Europe. Oxford Bibliographies. Web.
Burnard, Trevor. “A Global History of Slavery in the Medieval Millennium.” Slavery & Abolition 43, no. 4 (2022): 819-826. Web.
Fordham University. n.d. Ancient History Sourcebook: A Collection of Mesopotamian Laws, c. 2250 – 550 BCE. Web.
Freamon, Bernard K. 2019. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. Netherlands: Brill.
Sage, Nick. 2022. The Short Guide to International Development. United Kingdom, Policy Press.
The British Museum. 2019. Mesopotamia. Web.
The British Museum. n.d.-a. Slavery in ancient Rome. Web.
The British Museum. n.d.-b. Tablet. Web.
The Met. n.d.-a. Bronze military diploma. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web.
The Met. n.d.-b. Roman Inscriptions. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web.
The Met. n.d.-c. Trade between the Romans and the Empires of Asia. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web.