Introduction
Over the decades, there has been an increasing global focus and discourse on slavery. Nevertheless, too much attention is concentrated on the Trans-Atlantic slave trade that involved the European and American merchants, while there is scant information regarding the trans-Saharan slave trade. This trade, also known as the Arab slave trade, is estimated to be the longest slave trade in history, having existed for over 13 centuries (Koigi). The trade involved transporting enslaved people from sub-Saharan Africa, mainly Sudan and West Africa, to North Africa (Saleh and Sarah 56). Some scholars project that the slave merchants transported over 9 million enslaved Africans along the trans-Saharan route (Koigi). The statistics could be higher owing to the many slaves who died during transit. This Arab trade is renowned for its increased focus on enslaved women rather than males. The trans-Saharan slave trade was driven by the increased demand for slave labor, the use of slaves as legal tender, and the decline in gold and other products in sub-Saharan Africa.
Origin of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
The history of the trans-Saharan slave trade can be traced back to the seventh century. It is deeply connected to the dominance of Arabs in North Africa (Maghreb) during the seventh and eighth centuries, who invaded the region to spread Islam (Saleh and Sarah 58). As Arabs spread Islam through wars and conquests, the prisoners of war who refused to conform to the religion were captured as slaves (Saleh and Sarah 61). According to the Sharia law, Muslims could not enslave other converts.
Another justification the Arab traders had for enslaving Africans was the perception that black people were non-intelligent hence likening them to animals. Due to this belief, Africans were considered appropriate for enslavement, making the region a reservoir of enslaved people to the Arabic nations. Therefore, as the Islamic kingdoms grew in the Middle East and North Africa, there was increased labor demand to cater to the rulers’ courts (Saleh and Sarah 64). As a result, slaves were no longer captured through conquests alone; they were also acquired through kidnapping or raids (Saleh and Sarah 64). In addition, although some products, such as salt, were abundant in North Africa, they were scarce and indispensable in Sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, in some cases, the local rulers would exchange their people for various Mediterranean products, including horses and salt.
The trans-Saharan slave trade involved a vast network of interactions. The slaves were sourced from Sub-Saharan Africa to North Africa, where others would be sold to the Middle East and the Mediterranean regions (Saleh and Sarah 64). They were transported using caravans of camels through several routes across the Sahara to North Africa (Saleh and Sarah 62). By the time they reached the point of sale, they had already been converted to Muslims and taught some common Arabic words since there were no buyers for ‘pagan’ slaves (Saleh and Sarah 64). In addition, all the captives were given Arabic names, while all enslaved men were circumcised to ensure they did not reproduce with their fellow slaves (Saleh and Sarah 64). This slave trade greatly benefited the North African merchants and other desert traders.
Organization of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
The trans-Saharan slave trade mainly involved several parties, each with specific responsibilities. They included the Arabs, Berbers, Tuaregs, and some indigenous communities (McCannon 120). The Arabs provided a ready market for the captives. The Berbers, who originated from North Africa, became critical middlemen who controlled the slave trade by organizing caravans across the desert. The Tuaregs, who were indigenous nomadic tribes along the Sahara desert, played a critical role in the organization of the slave trade. For instance, they acted as guides and guards to the slave merchants and camel drivers to trade caravans (Saleh and Sarah 62). The nomad’s expertise on the trans-Saharan routes made them indispensable allies to the governments in North Africa. These indigenous tribes also possessed vital knowledge regarding the locations of oases which were critical water points in the vast desert. Alternatively, some African rulers were actively engaged in slave raiding by invading neighboring communities or selling their subjects as punishment for crimes. Thus, the collaboration among the Arabs, Tuaregs, Berbers, and some indigenous leaders facilitated the continuity of the slave trade.
The trans- Saharan slave trade was supported by a vast network of trade relations comprising caravan trading. Each caravan had an average of around 1,000 camels, although some had as many as 12,000 (Olatunde 69). The caravans mostly traveled at night due to the extremely high temperatures during the day. The slaves were transported barefoot and with chains around their necks; they also carried heavy goods on their heads (Saleh and Sarah 63). In North Africa, the slave-selling points were in Morocco, Cairo, Tripoli, and Algiers (Saleh and Sarah 59). Due to the long distances and harsh climatic conditions of the desert, a significant percentage of the captives did not reach the market points (Koigi). Hence, the Arab slave trade was conducted using caravans, but some enslaved people died in transit.
The trans-Saharan slave trade was organized in different trade routes. Since prehistoric times, trade was conducted across the Sahara between the North African Berbers and indigenous communities in Africa’s interior (Saleh and Sarah 58). The trade became more pronounced after the second century following the introduction of camels from central Asia. Therefore, the roads used during the ancient trans-Saharan trade became vital to slave merchants sourcing captives from the continent’s interior. One route originated from Tripoli, running through Murzuq, and continued into the Sokoto Caliphate and the Bornu Empire, while on the other hand, it led to Kanem and the Wadai (Passon et al. 43). This route provided the shortest road into interior sub-Saharan, becoming the main slave-trading pathway. In addition, another trade route began from Tripoli through Ghadamis to Ghat and continued into Niger and Mali (Passon et al. 43). These routes were appropriate because they offered access to oases and towns with food supplies such as Sijilmasa, Ghat, Tagbaza, and Agades (Olatunde 68). Thus, knowledge about desert roads was vital for the Arab slave trade.
Factors That Promoted the Growth of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
Several factors may have significantly contributed to the proliferation of the slave trade across the Sahara desert. In this case, the increasing universal demand for slave labor was a key driver of this trade. There was a growing need for more enslaved people in North Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean shores (Saleh and Sarah 64). The trans-Saharan trade preferred enslaved women more than their male counterparts. In this case, the female slaves performed domestic chores for Arab families (Saleh and Sarah 65). They also acted as nurses for their masters’ children and served as concubines (Saleh and Sarah 65). Scholars argue that the need for concubines drove the overwhelming preference of enslaved women over males (Koigi). Based on Islamic law, a Muslim man was permitted to have several slave women for sexual relations. Nevertheless, some girls and women were kept in harems and became sex slaves (Koigi). Thus, enslaved women performed a critical role by providing domestic labor.
The enslaved men were required for various purposes, including military, security, economic, and prestige. They were trained as bodyguards to merchants and rulers, while others became soldiers (Saleh and Sarah 65). The Islamic rulers used these black troops to fight local communities with rebellious tendencies. Other male slaves worked as field workers, miners, and herders, especially those working for Moors (Saleh and Sarah 65). Equally important, some enslaved men who were considered intelligent acted as traders and administrators (Saleh and Sarah 66). They became deputies, couriers, and record keepers to their masters. Thus, these diverse uses of enslaved people propelled the immense growth of the trans-Saharan trade. Due to the growing Islamic influence and the political instability of sub-Saharan Africa, the region remained vulnerable to slave raiding and trading. This may explain why the trans-Saharan slave trade blossomed until the advent of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in the sixteenth century.
The use of enslaved people as legal tender was another key contributor to the trans-Saharan slave trade. Enslaved people were mainly used as a means of payment, where they were exchanged for other commodities such as horses, salt, or other Mediterranean products (Olatunde 69). For instance, many African rulers declined requests to pay merchants through other means except enslaved people. The trans-Saharan trade was based on barter exchange, where communities in Africa’s interior, especially West Africa, traded gold for other commodities, such as salt. Nevertheless, other communities that did not have gold mines preferred to use enslaved people for trade to obtain critical supplies they did not produce. Owing to their multiple uses, enslaved people were extremely valuable objects of trade (Saleh and Sarah 65). Therefore, the use of captives as a means for trade continually fueled the trans-Saharan slave trade.
The decline in gold and other trading commodities also boosted the slave trade. Initially, the trans-Saharan trade involved the exchange of gold and ivory from West Africa with salt from Northern Africa, controlled by Arabs. However, with time, the gold mines began to be depleted, and other sources emerged, such as America. As a result, the traders from interior Africa opted to trade using enslaved people to obtain the products that were unavailable to them (Villalón 483. Hence, the depletion of natural resources in sub-Saharan Africa further propelled the trans-Saharan slave trade.
Effects of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
The Arab slave trade had both positive and negative impacts. In this context, the trade led to the emergence and growth of several towns in Western Africa, which were non-existent before, including Gao and Timbuktu, among others (Lockard 289). These towns expanded to serve the needs of the slave merchants traversing the trans-Saharan network. The urban centers offered merchants shelter to shield them and their caravans from the sandstorms and provided abundant food and water supplies for their camels and slaves (Hillbom and Erik 62). Other towns, such as Timbuktu, had developed into learning centers for scholars, especially philosophers and scientists, who escorted the caravans (Lockard 289). In addition, the Arab slave trade also led to the rise of strong empires in West Africa, including Songhai, Mali, and Ghana (Blyden 39). These territories developed due to the wealth they gathered from taxing the slave trade.
The slave trade greatly contributed to the spread of Islam in several parts of Africa. The enslavement of indigenous people who refused to conform to Islam pressured communities into embracing the religion. Additionally, the notion that Muslim merchants would only trade with other Muslims influenced several Africans to conform to Islam (Olatunde 71). For instance, Mali’s Emperor Mansa Musa, who converted to Islam, was renowned for his dedication to the religion following his pilgrimage to Mecca (Blyden 40). In addition, all Songhai rulers also embraced Islam which influenced them to set up Islamic legal and governing systems (Blyden 40). The conversion of several African leaders to Islam promoted the growth of the religion in those territories.
On the downside, the slave trade had harmful effects on many Africans. It caused immense suffering to indigenous communities whose family members or friends were enslaved during raids or kidnappings. The high demand for enslaved people severely depopulated several African nations, especially Sudan. Moreover, the slave trade resulted in massive loss of lives for many captives who died in transit due to fatigue, hunger, thirst, diseases, or harsh environmental conditions, while others perished due to deplorable conditions in mines and farms (Olatunde 74). Furthermore, the interactions between the Muslim Arabs and indigenous communities during the slave trade resulted in the erosion of cultural practices (Olatunde 71). Therefore, the Arab trade had devastating impacts on a majority of Africans in the sub-Sahara.
Challenges That Affected the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
Despite the critical role played by the Tuaregs and other nomadic tribes to help the trade caravans navigate the desert, the trans-Saharan slave trade encountered many problems. For example, the harsh environmental conditions greatly hindered the movement of caravans to and from the sub-Sahara (Saleh and Sarah 63). In this case, there were extremely high temperatures during the day, and it was exceptionally cold at night. These varying temperatures adversely affected the transportation of the caravans, particularly the movement of barefooted enslaved people. In addition, there were strong sand storms that buried many caravans alive. Similarly, due to the vastness of the Sahara desert, it took around two to three months to travel from North Africa to interior Africa and back (Saleh and Sarah 59). Therefore, the harsh climate conditions and the long distance across the Sahara threatened the lives of the slave merchants and the enslaved people. Another pressing challenge was the insecurity along the trading routes. In some cases, the trade caravans would be attacked by some desert communities who would capture several enslaved people to either resell them or use them for agricultural purposes. This greatly affected the profits of the slave merchants and derailed the slave trade.
The trans-Saharan slave trade was adversely affected by the lack of water and food reserves. Since the trade involved moving across the desert, the slave traders, their caravans, and the enslaved people experienced long periods of thirst and hunger (Saleh and Sarah 63). Some trade routes had few or no oases, while these water points were farther away on other roads. Extreme periods of thirst and hunger led to the demise of many enslaved people and several slave merchants, negatively affecting the trade. Furthermore, numerous slaves developed fever and other illnesses in the desert, leading to their demise; many captives also died from exhaustion, leaving trails of skeletons across the desert. Thus, inadequate food and water supply resulted in massive loss of lives for both the slaves and traders.
The Decline of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
The Arab slave trade began to dwindle around the sixteenth century. Several factors may have triggered this decline leading to the end of the trans-Saharan slave trade. One of the major factors was the political instability in regions that were actively engaged in the slave trade (Saleh and Sarah 68). In this case, the Moroccans attacked the Songhai Empire and other crucial trading centers such as Timbuktu and Gao. The political rivalry for control over the trans-Saharan trade among the Tuaregs, Moroccans, and the rulers of the Songhai region resulted in disarray and insecurity in the trans-Saharan territory in the seventeenth and eighteenth. This greatly disrupted the Arab slave trade across the Sahara, particularly in the western route. In addition, the entry of European traders and explorers, particularly the Portuguese, into Africa’s interior interrupted the Arab slave trade (Michelsen and Neville 41). These expeditions opened up new trading bases for the Europeans along the Atlantic Ocean, which was shorter than the trans-Saharan routes. As a result, the trans-Atlantic slave trade replaced the Arab slave trade through the Sahara.
Another contributor to the decline of the trans-Saharan slave trade was the abolition of slavery. With the obliteration of enslavement in the nineteenth century, the major slave markets in Northern Africa and overseas began to diminish, making the slave trade undesirable (Saleh and Sarah 57). Not to mention, the British adopted an anti-slave trade and aided in stopping the slavery business (Wills 9). Similarly, the entry of Europeans into Africa’s interior disrupted the political and economic significance of the Arabs in North Africa. Thus, all these factors greatly obstructed the movement of enslaved people across the Sahara. It is important to note that despite the decline of the trans-Saharan slave trade, slavery continued in territories that were once sources of slaves for the Arab trade.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the trans-Saharan trade was propelled by increased demand for slave labor, the use of slaves as legal tender, and the decline in gold and other resources in sub-Saharan Africa. The trade began around the seventh century and has been linked to the Arabs who invaded North Africa to spread Islam. Initially, the slave merchants only captured Africans who refused to conform to Islam but later, enslaved people were also acquired through kidnappings and raids. The main markets for enslaved people were North Africa, the Mediterranean regions, and the Middle East. In addition, the main participants in the trans-Saharan slave trade were the Arabs, Tuaregs, Berbers, and some African rulers, each with their own roles. This slave trade led to the growth of urban centers and the spread of Islam in West Africa and Sudan. Nevertheless, it also depopulated these regions and resulted in massive loss of lives. The main challenges that affected the Arab slave trade were harsh climatic conditions and inadequate food and water supplies. The trans-Saharan slave trade declined following the growth of the trans-Atlantic trade and the abolishment of slavery in the nineteenth century.
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