Abstract
The study investigated the impact of skipping as a sport on body composition, given its popularity as a form of high-intensity interval training. A systematic search of electronic databases (MEDLINE and SportsDiscus Databases) was conducted, and ten relevant articles were identified from 656 recognized studies. The included articles underwent quality assessments using CASP (2017).
A thematic analysis through inductive coding identified three themes relating to the effect of skipping on body composition: Body weight, Body Mass Index, and Body Fat Mass. The findings suggest that skipping as a sport positively impacts muscular development, fat-free mass, cardiovascular health, and blood pressure reduction.
Introduction
Skipping is a physical activity that involves repetitive jumping over a rope or cord in a rhythmic manner for exercise or leisure purposes (Molina-López et al., 2020). It is a cost-effective and accessible form of exercise that can enhance cardiovascular fitness, coordination, balance, and muscular strength.
Scientific research has shown that skipping as a sport can positively impact body composition (Molina-López et al., 2020). High-intensity interval training increases metabolic activity, resulting in more significant calorie burn and weight loss (Merritt, 2021).
Skipping also elevates the heart rate, increases oxygen delivery to the muscles, promotes improved blood flow throughout the body’s organs, improves cholesterol levels, and lowers blood pressure.
However, excessive aerobic activity can lead to decreased lean muscle mass, detrimental to overall health and wellness (Sipilä et al., 2020). A balanced diet and regular exercise are crucial in achieving and maintaining healthy weight loss and overall well-being.
Problem Statement
Skipping is an easily accessible and enjoyable exercise modality that may increase exercise program adherence in children and adults (Molina-López et al., 2020). Furthermore, skipping is an inexpensive exercise modality and requires limited performance space, which may promote better exercise adherence (Withall et al., 2011).
Jumping exercise has been shown to improve cardiorespiratory endurance and coordination in preadolescents, adolescents, and adults (Ozer et al., 2011). Improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness have also been shown to reduce blood pressure (Liu et al., 2014). This research paper explores the empirical studies on the impact of skipping on body composition and addresses how people who seek to alter their lifestyle might utilize this knowledge.
Methods
Search Strategy
Developing a research question is essential to the design of a study to provide a well-defined, focused research subject. According to Booth (2016), the PICO framework is critical for qualitative research analytic assessment. The PICO framework for this research study states: Does skipping workouts alter body composition (P), and is there a difference in body composition before and after skipping workouts? (O).
The MEDLINE (EBSCOhost) electronic database was the primary information source for this study. Wright et al. (2015) recognized that the MEDLINE database is one of the sources of evidence-based qualitative research. Furthermore, the SportsDiscuss databases were also used to provide various scholarly literature for the topic inquiry.
Search Terms
The database examination terms used in the search strategies are indicated in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Keywords explored in the literature search.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Studies were eligible if they matched the inclusion criteria listed below: a peer-reviewed empirical study, publications published in English, and journals with people ten years of age and older as participants and a skipping exercise program of more than four weeks. The featured publications included qualitative and quantitative designs.
However, conferences and lectures were excluded, as were publications lacking core original data gatherings such as book chapters, reports, systematic reviews, opinion pieces, and studies published in a language other than English. In addition, studies without skipping as a therapy or exercise effect were omitted.
Data Extraction
The data extraction procedure is crucial for normalizing the findings to assure their authenticity and credibility. Hallinger (2014) emphasizes the need for thorough extraction procedures in systematic literature reviews. This study report obtained each article’s author(s), publication year, location, journal, and methodological information (see Table 2).
The studies were evaluated via narrative synthesis, which included collecting data from each article, synthesizing each article based on the study findings, and drawing conclusions depending on the evidence offered by the authors (Snilstveit et al., 2012). This aspect of the research determines the researchers’ description of the skipping exercise program, how they evaluated skipping, and its influence on body composition.
Quality Assessment
Utilizing the CASP 2017 (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme) instrument, the methodological quality of each article that constituted the foundation of this review was assessed. This evaluation instrument is for a comprehensive examination of qualitative research (Long et al., 2020).
However, the purpose of the evaluations was not to exclude articles from the systematic review but to indicate areas of concern for assessing the impact of the study. If none of the CASP (2017) tool’s questions were answered with “yes,” the overall quality of each article was doubtful. The findings are provided in the table below (see Table 3).
Thematic Analysis
The delivery of ideal epidemiological characteristics necessitates a rigorous analysis of the original data to establish clarity in synthesizing essential qualitative assessments. Based on these analyses, the outcomes of each research study are easily replicable, allowing for theme synthesis.
This part used inductive coding to create descriptive themes, which were further examined to provide analytical themes. By inferring the impacts of skipping on body composition, similar codes were clustered to form the articles in the table below (see Table 4).
Results
Study Selection
Among the 656 recognized studies, 363 duplicates were deleted. Following a comprehensive search of titles and abstracts, a further 195 publications were removed, leaving 98 studies for full-text screening. An additional 48 articles were omitted because they did not match the inclusion criteria.
Of the omitted full-text papers, 40 researchers used plyometric-jump training in school-going children below ten years of age, therefore undermining their relevance to the present study. Accordingly, ten studies were suitable for inclusion, as indicated in the table below (see Table 2). A flow chart describing the eligibility procedure is provided in the diagram below (see Figure 1).
Data Extraction
Below is a summary of the data extraction results for the 10 peer-reviewed articles (see Table 2).
Table 2: Studies on Effects of Skipping on Body Composition (2018–2022)
Quality Assessment
The results of the CASP (2017) quality assessment for each of the ten articles included in this systematic review are as indicated in the table below (see Table 3).
Table 3: A detailed critical appraisal of the methodological study.
Participant and Study Characteristics
Table 3 presents the participant and study characteristics of the ten studies included in this review. The earliest study was published in 2015 (Trecroci et al., 2015). The most current study, as per this research, is a publication by Chen and Wu (2022). All the ten studies’ articles reported the year(s)/season(s) data was collected, of which 3 of the ten studies’ data were collected prior to and since 2022, respectively, while 1 study involved data collected both prior to- and since 2019 (Tong et al., 2021).
Furthermore, the Trecroci et al. (2015) survey had data collected before 2015. Nationalities of participants/locations included China (N=3) (Chen & Wu, 2022; Ha & Ng, 2017; Tang et al., 2021), Italy (di Cagno et al., 2020), Finland (Manderoos et al., 2022) and Spain (Martinez-Aldo et al., 2018). There were also regions such as South Korea (Sung et al., 2019), Turkey (Eler & Acar,2018), and Japan (Yamashita & Yamamoto, 2021).
The participants’ profiles comprised 15 male college students, aged 19.07 ± 0.70 years (Chen & Wu, 2022), 233 healthy adults where 149 adults were women aged 43.0 ± 7.3 years and 84 men aged 44.0 ± 7.7 years (Manderoos et al., 2018). In the research by Martínez‐Aldao et al. (2019), 30 adults with a mean age of 36.37 ± 11.24 years were involved. Tang et al. (2021) used 46 young adults aged 19–21 years, while Yamashita and Yamamoto (2021) employed 15 healthy students, where 5 were women and 10 were men with a mean age of 20–33.
Moreover, di Cagno et al. (2020) utilized the services of 54 male participants aged 18 years and above. Trecroni et al. (2015) used 24 young sub-elite soccer players aged between 10-12 years. In the research by Eler and Acar (2018), 240 male students aged 10-12 years were employed as participants. Sung et al. (2019) utilized the services of 40 girls aged 14-16 years, while the study by Ha and Ng (2017) employed 176 Hong Kong girls aged 10-14 years.
Training Intervention
Chen and Wu (2022) investigated the effect of an 8-week rope skipping intervention on standing long jump performance in a group of 20 male college students. Participants performed string skipping exercises for 30 minutes per session, three times weekly, for 24 sessions. A five-minute warm-up, twenty minutes of rope skipping, and a five-minute cool-down comprised the skipping routine.
The results showed that the rope skipping intervention significantly improved standing long jump performance in the participants, suggesting that rope skipping can be an effective exercise for enhancing lower body power and explosive performance.
Manderoos et al. (2018) investigated the connection between lower limb power and agility in adult volunteers who were both physically active and inactive. The study found that the power of the lower extremities was the most critical determinant of skill in both groups. Although the study did not specifically focus on a rope skipping program, the findings suggest that rope skipping, which involves repeated jumping and landing, can potentially improve lower body power and agility.
Martínez-Aldao et al. (2019) investigated the feasibility of a dance and exercise with music program for adults with intellectual disability. The study included a 12-week intervention incorporating various activities, including rope skipping. The rope skipping exercise was incorporated into a circuit training program, and the program comprised of two weekly sessions lasting sixty minutes each. The results showed that the program was well-received by the participants and positively impacted their physical fitness and well-being.
Tang et al. (2021) conducted a preliminary randomized controlled experiment to investigate how young individuals’ cardiometabolic health is affected by calorie restriction and rope-skipping exercise. A 12-week intervention comprising five sessions of thirty minutes each, rope skipping exercise was included in the trial. The results showed that the rope-skipping intervention significantly improved cardiometabolic health, including reductions in body weight, waist circumference, and fasting blood glucose levels.
Yamashita and Yamamoto (2021) investigated the impact of long-rope jumping on monoamine and attention in young adults. The study included a 10-minute intervention of long-rope jumping exercise, and the results showed that the activity significantly increased monoamine levels and improved attention performance in the participants. Although a rope skipping program was not the study’s primary emphasis, the results imply that rope skipping may have comparable positive effects on attention and cognitive performance.
Di Cagno et al. (2020) compared the effects of accentuated eccentric and plyometric training on the performance of young elite fencers. Rope skipping was a 5-week intervention that was a component of the enhanced strange training program that was studied. The results showed that the accentuated eccentric training led to more significant improvements in lower body power and explosive strength than the plyometric training, suggesting that rope skipping may be an effective exercise for enhancing lower body power and strength.
Eler and Acar (2018) examined the effects of a rope jump training program in physical education lessons on children’s strength, speed, and VO2 max. A 10-week intervention incorporating a training regimen for rope jumps during physical education classes was incorporated into the study. The results showed that the program significantly improved the children’s strength, speed, and VO2 max, suggesting that rope skipping can be an effective exercise for improving physical fitness in children.
Trecroci et al. (2015) investigated the effects of jump rope training on balance and motor coordination in preadolescent soccer players. A 6-week intervention of 12 sessions of twice-weekly jump rope training was included in the study. The results showed that the jump rope training led to significant improvements in the balance and motor coordination of the preadolescent soccer players.
Specifically, the researchers found that jump rope training significantly improved the players’ static and dynamic balance and their motor coordination in tasks that involved jumping, cutting, and changing direction. These findings suggest that jump rope training could be a valuable addition to preadolescent soccer players’ training programs to improve their balance and motor coordination.
Sung et al. (2019) sought to examine how a 12-week jump rope training regimen affected the prehypertensive adolescent females’ belly fat, vasoactive chemicals, inflammation, and vascular function. A 12-week jump rope workout regimen with two weekly sessions lasting 60 minutes each made up the training intervention. The results showed that the jump rope exercise program significantly reduced abdominal adiposity and improved vascular function, as measured by brachial artery flow-mediated dilation.
Ha and Ng (2017) aimed to investigate the effects of rope skipping on bone mineral density in pubertal girls in Hong Kong. The training intervention was a rope skipping program that lasted 20 weeks, which was conducted during physical education classes at school. The results showed that the rope skipping program led to a significant increase in bone mineral density at the calcanei (heel bone) of the pubertal girls.
Thematic Analysis
Based on the analysis of six articles (N=10), this research grouped the findings into three themes:
- Body Weight;
- Body Mass Index; and
- Body Fat Mass on body composition.
A summary of the impact of skipping or rope jumping on body composition is indicated in the table below (see Table 4).
Table 4: Thematic analysis summary of the ten articles.
Discussion
The objective of the study was to examine the effects of skipping as a sport on body composition, given its popularity as a high-intensity interval training exercise. A systematic search of the MEDLINE and SportsDiscus Databases was conducted, resulting in the identification of ten relevant articles from a pool of 656 studies.
After removing duplicates (n=363) and screening titles and abstracts (n=195), 98 studies were subjected to full-text screening. Of the 48 articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria, 40 involved plyometric jump training in school-going children below ten years of age, rendering them irrelevant to the current study.
Body Weight and Body Mass Index
The relationship between physical fitness and body weight in those who skip or jump rope is strong. Rope skipping is a classic stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) used to enhance leaping ability (Chen & Wu, 2022). According to Chen and Wu (2022), in this specific case, the purpose of rope skipping training is to assist male physical education students in improving their standing long jump performance. The authors reached the conclusion that college students who are not enrolled in a physical education institution would benefit more from rope-skipping instruction.
The observed decrease in body mass may possibly explain why the subjects were able to walk further distances and leap higher. In this respect, it is essential to highlight that while calorie intake was not regulated during the course of the research, it does impact the change in body weight (Martnez-Aldao et al., 2019). Due to the standing long jump distance and the velocity of the center of gravity during takeoff and landing, rope skipping improves physical fitness.
In addition to its impact on physical fitness, rope jumping exercise has been found to have an effect on body weight. Sung et al. (2019) reported that rope jumping for physical education led to a reduction in waist circumference among participants. Furthermore, Eler and Acar (2018) found that exercise through rope jumping significantly lowered the body weight of male students compared to those who did not participate in the program. These findings suggest that the proper execution of rope jumping is crucial for achieving optimal physical fitness.
As a consequence of enhanced body form through rope jumping or skipping, agility influences BMI. According to Chen and Wu (2022), jumping rope is a full-body workout that demands rhythm, coordination, agility, velocity, and stability. Chen and Wu (2022) found that rope skipping training decreased ground contact time, improved jump height, and altered the involvement of each muscle group or joint angle control in the feet and ankles. Training may increase both centrifugal and centripetal contraction capacities and high-power output within a short period of time. Remarkably, the thigh and calf muscular groups are worked during skipping rope.
In support of the aforementioned findings, Trecroci et al. (2015) determined that the synchronization and alignment of elite young footballers can be improved significantly by an 8-week rope skipping exercise (2 times per week for 15 minutes), indicating that the activity may be crucial for enhancing athletic performance in addition to specialized training.
Similarly, Turgut et al. (2016) recognized that 12 weeks of rope skipping practice increased the explosive power, agility, and reaction time of female adolescent volleyball players (3 times per week and for 40 min). A previous study by Partavi (2013) reveals gains in cardiorespiratory fitness (10.33%) and agility (3.17%) among teenage males after seven weeks of rope skipping training. In addition, eight weeks of rope skipping may enhance the BMI and boost the physical fitness of teenagers (Mullur & Jyoti, 2019).
When it comes to physical fitness, the vertical leap is an essential indicator of agility for both physically inactive and fit men and women. According to Manderoos et al. (2018), adult agility requires a combination of physical and cognitive abilities, including speed and movement precision in relation to the task. The researchers found that leap length was the primary driver of agility, but it only explained 25% of the variation in agility for women and 15% for men.
This suggests that agility and leaping height are distinct abilities. These results are consistent with those of a previous study by Henry et al. (2016), which examined young college-aged athletes or regular exercisers, while the survey by Manderoos et al. (2018) involved relatively inactive or moderately physically active adults.
However, Manderoos et al. (2018) found that the correlations between agility, age, and BMI in women were modest, whereas, in males, they were moderate. The research found that BMI had no significant effect on agility, which is consistent with the findings of a prior study that included both men and women. Manderoos et al (2018). Therefore, leaping length explained less than 25% of the difference in execution time of agility across physically inactive women and men and physically active men and women.
These data lend credence to the notion that adult agility tests need additional physical and cognitive traits as currently evaluated and that their contribution to explaining agility outcomes may be quite significant within the group of unexplained factors. In this respect, the present study indicates that cognitive factors such as perception and decision-making account for a substantial proportion of agility.
Training that emphasizes eccentric contractions results in a longer eccentric contraction, which may improve adaptability. According to Di Cagno et al. (2020), increased eccentric load training led to lower limb muscular stress during the return phase. According to Cagno et al. (2020), eccentric training for six weeks improved the lower limb range of motion of fencers, as measured by the Inter Malleolar Distance gain and the distance covered in both lunge and advance-advance lunge.
In addition, motor coordination increases, which increases the balance and strength to perform complex tasks on persons under rope jumping exercises (Sung et al., 2019). In this case, the body mass indexes are reduced because of a decrease in the nitrate and nitrate levels and the reduction in C-reactive substances that cause an increase in BMI (Sung et al., 2019). Therefore, the maximal forward acceleration and the ability to slow the body mass as rapidly as feasible are essential performance variables in rope jumping.
The ability to swiftly halt an athlete, thereby minimizing the needed knee flexion, may shorten the time required to reverse direction and return to the guard position. In confirmation of these results, Gonzalo-Skok et al. (2016) demonstrated that eccentric training increases eccentric speed and erratic kinetic energy.
This is similar to the study by Eler and Acar (2018), who noted an increase in VO2 max levels associated with speed and power after rope jumping exercise. Therefore, the stretch reflex generated during the eccentric-concentric transition explains why training with a rotating inertial device induces superior adaptations.
Body Fat Mass
Muscular fitness refers to the level of strength and endurance of the muscles in the body. It is determined by factors such as the size and composition of the muscles, as well as the ability of the muscles to generate force and perform work. Muscular fitness can be improved through various forms of exercise, including strength training, resistance training, and high-intensity interval training.
Martnez-Aldao et al. (2019) found that calisthenics activities, such as jumping, resulted in weight reduction among the participants of their study, leading to substantial changes in their BMI. Given the desire for knowledge on the impact of various exercise programs on the body weight of persons with intellectual disability (ID), this is a topic of significant interest and significance (Spanos et al., 2013).
Similarly, according to Martnez-Aldao et al. (2019), calisthenics workouts favorably increased cardiovascular and muscular fitness. Other investigators have previously observed that a physical exercise program leads to considerable increases in the physical fitness characteristics of persons with ID (Oviedo et al., 2014). Consequently, the originality of this study resides in the sort of intervention recommended, which is primarily focused on the effects of rope jumps or skipping on fat distribution.
The patients’ increased ability to walk longer distances and jump higher may be explained by the observed decrease in body mass. Despite Martnez-Aldao et al. (2019) integrating calisthenics exercises with music, it is documented that low-impact cardiovascular activity, which impacts multiple essential fitness components, improves performance in individuals with ID. Calisthenics workouts may thereby improve the body fat percentage and cardiac and muscular fitness levels of persons with ID.
In several animal species, calorie restriction without starvation has been shown to be helpful in promoting weight reduction and enhancing cardiometabolic health. Early onset CR decreased the probability of the rhesus monkeys acquiring and passing away from cardiovascular disease by even more than 50% (Tang et al., 2021). Although calorie restriction (CR) in people has been debatable, CR, in addition to rope skipping, was shown to be beneficial for metabolic and inflammatory variables, with substantial reductions in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and interleukin-8 (Tang et al., 2021).
According to Tang et al. (2021), the CR combined with rope skipping had considerably reduced blood pressure, nocturnal insulin, and physiological model evaluation of insulin resistance, cytotoxic necrosis factors, and interleukin-8 levels than the CR alone in morbidly obese subjects. In this instance, rope skipping, which is enhanced by CR, decreases weight and improves body composition in young people by reducing body fat mass. Moreover, CR with rope-skipping intervention significantly improves cardiometabolic health in those who are overweight or obese.
In a study by Yamashita and Yamamoto (2021), long-rope jumping was associated with greater levels of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl glycol (a norepinephrine metabolite) in the saliva and 5-hydroxy indole acetic acid (a serotonin metabolite) in the urine than the control. Long-rope skipping predicts cerebral norepinephrinergic stimulation and associated concentration retention because it requires the upper and lower body to keep equilibrium and rhythm, hence promoting weight reduction, subsequently lowering the BFM.
On the other hand, Eler and Acar (2018) established that rope jumping reduced significantly the body fat ratio after ten weeks, three days a week of exercise. Sung et al. (2019) noted the reduction in abdominal adiposity due to SBP decrease, post-SBP reduction, and reduction in resting heart rate after a 12-week jump rope exercise program. Notably, Ha and Ng (2017) also noted a significant increase in levels of bone mineral density correlated with the reduction in BFM.
Previous studies by Wasenius et al. (2020) and Gronek et al. (2020) showed that rope-skipping workouts enhanced cardiometabolic health in those with average body weight, overweight, adiposity, metabolic disease, or type 2 Diabetes. In these researches, even though the exercise treatments were planned differently, moderate- to vigorous-intensity exercise was most often employed, and the length of the interventions varied across trials.
Otten et al. (2019) found that moderate cardiovascular activity and high-intensity continuous training substantially decreased the levels of myocardial triglycerides in overweight and obese people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Therefore, evidence suggests that rope-skipping is an inexpensive, readily accessible, and enjoyable exercise modality with a high exercise adherence rate among students for enhancing health conditions.
Based on the information provided in the text, skipping (or rope jumping) as a form of exercise has various effects on the body, including:
- Improved body composition: Skipping has been found to lead to a reduction in body weight and waist circumference, which can improve overall body composition.
- Increased physical fitness: Skipping is a high-intensity interval training exercise that can improve cardiovascular fitness, as well as enhance agility, velocity, coordination, and stability.
- Improved athletic performance: Skipping has been shown to enhance the synchronization and alignment of elite young footballers, increase explosive power, agility, and reaction time of female adolescent volleyball players, and improve the endurance and speed of boxers.
- Positive mental health effects: Skipping can be a fun and enjoyable form of exercise, which can lead to increased self-esteem and reduced anxiety and stress.
The study is limited to the studies available in the selected databases, and more research is required to investigate the effects of skipping on specific populations. Further investigation is needed to determine the optimal training intensity, frequency, and duration of skipping exercises for improving physical fitness and agility.
Moreover, future studies should examine the impact of skipping workouts on the elderly, obese individuals, and patients with chronic diseases. Finally, more research is needed to investigate the effects of nutrition and dietary patterns on body composition in conjunction with skipping exercise.
Conclusion
The study’s results suggest that skipping as a sport offers benefits beyond muscular development, including an increase in fat-free mass, which is linked to better physical performance and a lower body mass index. The authors suggest that encouraging young individuals to participate in skipping as a sport may help maintain muscle mass and improve physical fitness, reducing the risk of chronic illnesses associated with excess weight gain in later life.
The research also highlights several health advantages of skipping, including weight loss, improved cardiovascular health, and lower blood pressure, making it a valuable cardiovascular exercise for older people with heart problems. While skipping can aid in fat burning and maintaining a healthy metabolism, a balanced diet and exercise regimen should be kept to prevent unintentional weight gain.
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