Introduction
Every nation has a set of its traditional, unique characteristics that have formed on their territories historically through their development, enrichment of cultural heritage, self-realization, social, religious and spiritual reflections etc. These characteristics shape the cultural profile of the country that is discovered by its representatives and foreigners through architecture, literature, religion, social lifestyle and design. Hence, to understand the deeply-rooted philosophy governing the life in one or another country, one can explore its revelation in design and art.
Japan is not an exception, and the design of houses, dressing, gardens and appliances etc. is also highly expressive from the point of view of the Orient culture, philosophy and religion. The Japanese are traditionally very close and respectful towards nature, long to harmony of all things in their physical and spiritual environment, which finds a direct reflection in their choice of materials, forms and trends of design. The social, political and religious implications also find a reflection in modern and traditional design styles.
The history of Japanese design has much to offer for researchers. As Lipton and Clarke state, design is a social product changing with time, so it reflects major tendencies in social development in Japan within the course of the country’s history (Lipton and Clark 2000, p. 62). Following this idea, it is relevant to recollect the opinion of Sparke about the history of Japanese design researchable only from the late 19th century when Japan finally opened its doors to international affairs, foreign guests and newcomers (Sparke 2009, p. 11).
Japan was under the rule of Tokugawa shoguns during the whole Edo period, from 1602 to 1867. The Emperor’s return to power in 1868 marked opening the borders of Japan and resulted in the inevitable catch-up with the social, technological, economic and other achievements in the world. This rapid and uncontrollable process included intensive Westernization during which the Japanese managed to commercialize their deeply-rooted philosophy and culture, which was seen in the successful sales of decorative goods symbolizing the Japanese culture and made in the framework of the traditional Japanese design (tatami, kimono etc). In 1870s-1880s the Japanese traditional clothes, furniture and other elements of lifestyle were substituted by Western ones (Sparke 2009, p. 13).
The 1920s witnessed the cultural move in design towards industrialization and standardization – the trend was largely presupposed by the development of manufacturing, assembly-line production and other global economic trends that required the intense response in part of Japan. In 1928 the design group Keiji Kobo (The Ideal Form Atelier) was created by Kurata Chikatada – its principles were based on mass production (Tipton and Clark 2000, p. 64). However, at the same time the move towards retaining traditional, spiritual, authentic Japanese culture began and was reflected in the creative activity of Soetsu Yanagi who sought return to Japanese craftwork and implemented it in his artistic works (Sparke 2009, p. 13).
The WW II threw its shade on the Japanese life finding its gloomy reflection in the design trends as well. During that period of time the design of Koguro Joichi based on the symbolization of warfare became typical for Japan (Tipton and Clark 2000, p. 68). Starting from 1950s technological appliances grew in importance in the home market, shaping the consumer demand in the country (Sparke 2009, p. 18). From 1980s and further on, the modern design ultimately formed due to the intense global integration. The latest alterations in the Japanese design occurred during the 1990s’ recession when the nation refused from their ephemeral popular culture and returned to the universal, traditional values (Sparke 2009, p. 33). Thus, the traditional elements that make up the universal natural ergonomic Japanese design welded in the harmonious philosophy of Zen Buddhism will be analyzed in the present paper.
Elements and Philosophy of Japanese Design
Japanese design has historically rested on the principles of unity with nature, harmony, peaceful mind, and was heavily influenced by Buddhism. Each element of Japanese design has its own name in the Japanese language, and each one has a detailed explanation from cultural, historical, social and religious points of view. Some elements form the basis of Japanese design and choice of materials for construction, so they are worth separate attention to understand the milestones of Japanese design development, values and trends.
The symbol ‘honshitsu’ relates to the real essence of the Japanese design; it emphasizes the initial nature of design as an attempt to please forces of nature, ‘kami’, or gods (De Mente 2006, 1). In addition to profound influence of the Shinto religion as well as the natural beauty of Japanese islands is also meant by the discussed concept. Next, the ‘shizen’ concept symbolizes the main technique on which all Japanese design rests – ‘imitating mother nature’. The Japanese have always been sure that everything that imitates nature or is made of natural materials is initially appealing for people (De Mente 2006, p. 3). The element of ‘shizenbi’ means the nature’s standard of beauty and symbolizes the Japanese unity with nature, worshipping thereof as a sample of beauty from which every designer should start his/her design effort (De Mente 2006, p. 5). ‘Wa’ is the principle of harmony in all things that governs the Japanese self-perception and design.
There are specific denotations justifying the choice of materials the Japanese use for design of their houses, gardens, elements of household etc. ‘Washi’ symbolizes paper with character – the Japanese consider that it adds friendliness, fragility and charm, while wood adds warmth, beauty and vitality (De Mente 2006, p. 108). This philosophy explains the dominant usage of wood and paper in Japanese houses. Besides, the Japanese have element ‘ishi’ symbolizing their usage of Sabi stones, the symbol of ‘wara/tatami’ justifying their wide usage of straw (e.g. tatami), and the symbol ‘take’ that denotes the incredible properties of bamboo (De Mente 2006, pp. 11-19).
All these elements shape the overall philosophy that underlines the principles of the Japanese design. Proper consideration of basic Buddhism assumptions as well as a rich culture that Japan has been nurturing for many centuries will open the door to understanding trends, principles and major concepts of the Japanese design. It is reflected in the construction of Japanese houses, the design of Japanese gardens, the peculiarities of furniture design may be adequately understood if analyzed separately with regard to long-lasting Japanese traditions, historical changes and socio-cultural implications that are inseparable from the Japanese national design.
Traditional Japanese Gardens
Japanese gardens play an important role in the Japanese history, culture and design. There is a long-standing tradition of Japanese gardens that are mentioned in the 7th-century poems. The principal forms of aristocratic gardens were lakes, islands, bridges etc. The gardens were products of a highly self-conscious culture that was an attempt to recreate the wild, untamed nature (Kawaguchi 2008, 19). Nowadays gardens are also a significant part of Japanese design, though the increased population and changing socio-economic conditions dictate changes in their architecture, e.g. there traditionally were the following types of gardens: the hill and pond garden (Figure 1), the dry garden, the tea garden and the courtyard garden (Kawaguchi 2008, pp. 20-54).
As one can see from Figure 1, the lake became a central element of gardens, because Japan was blessed with many springs, and it was relatively easy to make an artificial pond (Kawaguchi 2008, p. 20). There is much specificity about designing the place of the lake, the artificial hill that reflects the nature of pilgrimage reminiscences and reconstruction of witnessed landscapes.
The dry garden (or moss garden) is designed according to the individual perceptions of seasons – the gardener alters plants according to his/her feelings, which symbolizes the Japanese harmonious relationships with nature. Moss that appears the central element of the moss garden requires special care, adequate moisture , free-draining soil etc. The overwhelming choice is made for shady trees, bamboos and hedges (Kawaguchi 2008, p. 43).
The tea garden appeared in the 15th century; it reflects the serious attitude of the Japanese to the tea ceremony that has historically obtained very high symbolism and importance. It is usually laid out as an approach to the tea-room, so it includes a necessary sequence of corresponding Japanese features such as the outer and inner garden, a covered shelter with benches with round, woven seat-mats etc. (Kawaguchi 2008, p. 44). The courtyard garden is also a distinct kind of gardens that are present in small houses, representing a well of greenery surrounded by rooms and corridors from all sides. Separate attention should be paid to Zen gardens as a separate kind of gardens that can nevertheless be naturally blended with other traditional historical types that have already been discussed in this section. Zen gardens appeared in the 12th century when the aristocracy lost its power and warriors (bushi) came to power in Japan. Thus, the dramatic change in the political power resulted in deep socio-cultural changes affecting the design of gardens as well (Keane and Ohashi 1996, p. 47). Gardens became smaller because they were constructed in smaller urban Zen temples; they reflected the epoch of withdrawal, enclosure and introversion. The tendency is clearly explainable by the dominant religion of Zen Buddhism propagating closeness to nature, self-reliance, individual effort for self-enlightenment, inner strength, meditation etc. (Keane and Ohashi 1996, pp. 49-54). Zen gardens traditionally have contemplative nature that corresponds to the warrior shoin culture; they represent the aesthetics of frugality and “subtle profundity” (Keane and Ohashi 1996, p. 56).
Furniture and Interior Design Elements
Speaking about the traditional Japanese interior design, one should pay attention to the materials of which houses in Japan are made. Since Japanese people propagate Zen Buddhism that dictates harmony of human beings with nature, Japanese houses are mostly constructed of wood and paper (Elements of Traditional Japanese Interior n.d.). Japan’s vast forests, natural environment, weather, geography etc. presuppose this choice. A typical Japanese house should include the following elements: a genkan (entry way), a daidokoro (kitchen), a sento (bathing room), and a banjo (toilet) (Mae 2008). Other space in the house usually has no direct specialization and is divided by fusuma according to the needs of masters.
Fusuma are sometimes used as the division between rooms and as a substitute for windows; however, one more typical element of the Japanese interior is the misu shade that can be seen on Figure 6. It is a “highly decorative hand cut bamboo window, wall or room (breaker) screen, which has been used for nearly 800 years in Japan”, and it is also used both in the traditional and modern Japanese design as a natural wooden inclusion harmoniously fitting the overall image of the Japanese house.
Speaking in detail about tatami, this covering of the floor in Japan has a rich history, and its usage is deeply rooted in cultural and social traditions of the Japanese throughout history. The Japanese use to dig rectangular holes in the ground, covering the floor of their houses with leaning logs against posts and ridge poles (Elements of Traditional Japanese Interior n.d.). Later on the nobility started to live in houses with raised floors, which saved them from moist in winter and heat in summer. During the Heian period the word ‘okitatami’ came to be used to denote thin mats used in isolated areas, on the wooden planks used as the floor. Okitatami were used for different purposes, and the height of piling, color and design thereof were used to differentiate people’s rank in the court. Traditionally made of rice straw, tatami need to be occasionally aired to avoid molding (nowadays the problem is solved in the production of tatami with the addition of synthetic materials). No shoes are worn in the place where tatami lie;
Proceeding to the discussion of other rooms in the Japanese house, it is also worth mentioning the Japanese tradition of ‘onsen’ or ‘sento’ – the public bath that can usually be found in ‘ryokan’ – the Japanese style hotel (in the modern times it may be also found in the yard of the Japanese house, it is called ‘rotenburo’. It is a compact wooden bath that is related to relaxation and wellness;
One more typically Japanese element of the interior that is worth mentioning is the style of dining and the design of chairs connected with it: Zaisu chairs of various styles and forms are typically met in a Japanese house in spite of the growing attention to westernized chairs with legs (Western tendencies in Japanese design have been mentioned above).
As one can see, the typical interior in a Japanese house is not distinguished with many elements, the most typical of which have been discussed in the present section. Other rooms that have not yet been discussed also contain the minimum of necessary appliances:
“The kitchen in most traditional Japanese homes will contain a stove with a very small oven and broiler and an electric refrigerator. Counter space for food preparation and a sink are also located in the kitchen” (Mae, 2008).
Hygiene is an important part of the Japanese lifestyle reflected in their houses’ design. Thus, it is important to know that a typical Japanese bathroom is usually waterproof. The water from a bath is re-used, so it is important not to make it dirty with soap, so the bath is entered only after the dirty parts of the body have been washed. There are some rules of using the toilet as well – special slippers have to be put on before entering the benjo that is usually very small and designed either in the typical Western way or embedded in the floor (Mae 2008).
Conclusion
Japanese design is highly specific and original, reflecting the rich traditional Orient culture, philosophy and aesthetics of Japan and distinguishing the country from the rest of the world. The elements of Japanese design speak about the authentic Japanese culture, showing the historical, economic and socio-cultural changes that took place on its territory throughout the whole period of its existence. Indeed, the design characteristic for Japan is a social product that nowadays successfully combines the most innovative global trends and techniques and leaves much space for tradition, culture, spirituality, harmony and closeness to nature that have been worshipped and cultivated in Japan for many centuries. Even being now subject to many changes that the inevitable globalization and Westernization processes bring, Japan manages to retain its traditions in the elements of construction, household, clothing etc., which shows the unique nature of Japanese design , allows research and multiple discoveries in the field, and eloquently expresses the Japanese true cultural essence and attitude to things around them.
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