Introduction
Human beings have been set apart as the only species capable of literacy. Just what is literacy, and how does it develop in an individual? Venezky, et al (1990) provides an elaborate explanation, emphasizing writing as well as reading:
“Literacy is a minimal ability to read and write in a designated language, as well as a mindset or way of thinking about the use of reading and writing in everyday life. It differs from simple reading and writing in its assumption of an understanding of the appropriate uses of these abilities within a print-based society. Literacy, therefore, requires active, autonomous engagement with print and stresses the role of the individual in generating as well as receiving and assigning independent interpretations to messages.” (p. 142)
Schools have been built to nurture and develop it and use a variety of methods to inculcate it in students, just so they may draw upon their literacy skills in becoming productive, learned individuals.
Main body
Much research has been dedicated to understand how people become literate. Literacy theories have been conceptualized by scholars which are universally applicable to all learners. Emergent literacy is the term used to refer to the earliest period of a child’s literacy development, specifically the time between birth and when the child can read and write (Sulzby and Teale, 1991). According to emergent literacy theories, the child is the central figure in the construction of learning.
His life experiences directly affect his literacy. One theoretical perspective in the area of emergent literacy is that children are innately predisposed to becoming literate especially if they live in a literary-rich environment – lots of books, pictures, films, software, educational posters, etc. Piaget (1959) also has something to contribute to the theoretical perspective of literacy. According to him, literacy is actively constructed with a child’s interaction with the environment.
Such interaction brings about learning, as concepts are constructed or changed, usually, differing from adult concepts. Still another perspective has been inspired by Vygotsky (1962), as he theorizes that a child learns literacy through conversation and involvement in literacy acts with an adult. This interaction between adult and child is called ‘scaffolding’. This occurs when a knowledgeable adult gently guides a child through successive literacy activities while relinquishing autonomy little by little to the child until such time he can do in on his own.
Another literacy theory is that each person has a literacy identity or “the sum total of what he or she already knows and can do.” (Anstèy & Bull, 2006). This includes the socio-cultural processes and knowledge of the learner. Life experiences provide people with a gamut of resources about literacy and literate practices, contributing to their overall identity. These different domains or identities are collectively known as discourse worlds and suggest that students draw on two in particular to make meaning, the lifeworld (i.e., everything that exists outside school) and the school-based world.
The distinction between the two is that the lifeworld represents real world experiences, and school experiences represent contrived experiences in the academic setting. It is essential that teachers show their students how to know and use their literacy identities because what students know, understand and can do with texts depend on being aware of the resources available to them – the knowledge and experiences they have. When students realize that they do not have the precise ones they need, then they can use what they have, combining whatever elements to suit the tasks at hand.
Educators use different approaches to help children become literate. There are divergent approaches that offer sensible principles that have worked on their students. One approach is the whole language approach, which emphasize a holistic, meaning-based and context-based approach in linking printed text with spoken language. Little attention is paid to specific or isolated skills and limited emphasis is placed on the role of focused practice.
Language and literacy are viewed as integrated systems, and specific components of language such as sounds of each letter are not learned in isolation (Norris & Hoffman, 1993). In contrast, proponents of the Phonetic approach, which emphasizes phonological awareness training, value the provision of specific and focused opportunities to practice segmenting words into phonemes, blending phonemes into words and learning to rhyme.
Although the whole language approach and the phonetic approach seem to be opposing camps, there is good reason to suggest an integration of both for more effective literacy development. Watkins & Bunce (1996) gives the rationale:
“On the one hand, because the process of literacy acquisition occurs through natural, meaningful experiences with print and reading, these experiences should play a role in efforts to facilitate such skills. On the other hand, because phonological awareness contributes to early reading achievement, some focus on particular phonological awareness abilities appears warranted. Thus, a rationale exists for integrating whole language and phonological awareness perspectives in attempts to promote literacy proficiency in young children.” (n.p.)
Watkins & Bunce calls this integrated model Natural literacy. It expands the concept of emergent literacy by emphasizing the role of interactions with adults or more competent peers in a child’s learning experiences.
Story books take a major role the development of literacy. The book “Best Friends Forever” is one story that reflects all the aforementioned literacy theories. Although it was written for children in the middle childhood ages, it can still be told to younger children in a language more appropriate for them. This is especially relevant for young children undergoing a major life change who are finding it difficult to understand the emotions they are going through. Emergent literacy theories would support that aside from learning new vocabulary in ascribing labels for some feelings, they may also relate to the main character’s dilemma of separating from close friends and detaching from bonds she has established. Such experience will be something to draw from when the child writes about emotions.
Reading the story will also enrich the literacy identity of students who become aware of where they live and the culture they are growing up in. The text compares two places (Alaska and Florida), and this can be a springboard for a lesson on community, maybe comparing two different places in Australia where some of the students in the class originate from. The exchange of ideas may be very interesting and informative to the class, aside from raising pride of their respective communities and culture. It becomes a way to integrate their life world experiences into their school-based ones.
Natural literacy easily develops when the teacher uses this story as a theme for a whole language unit. Activities to teach vocabulary, rhymes, sequence of events, cause and effect, etc. may be designed to be fun and creative, inspired by parts of the story.
For example, the students come up with words to describe their friends that begin with the same letter of their names (ex. Amazing Anne; Marvelous Minerva) or they can work together to come up with ways the four friends can keep in touch with each other as they grow older to keep on being “best friends forever” (ex. Creating a list: write to each other, email, chat via internet, visit each other, send postcards, etc). The name game may be the phonetic part of the unit, and the ways to keep friendships going may be the whole language part. In doing so, comprehension of the story becomes better, while students learn a lot more concepts to gain more academic skills.
“Best Friends Forever” is a treasure trove of ideas to inspire teachers in designing a curriculum rich with activities to develop various skills in children. A teacher will be helped in organizing it by first creating a curriculum web of concepts that can be harvested from the story such as plants and gardening, family, home, friends, community, moving to another place, jobs, and so many more. These concepts may further be dissected into sub concepts, and from there, the teacher can integrate activities which she believes will help develop students academic, social, emotional, creative and even physical skills. The activities need not be restricted to pen and paper tasks, as children learn better when they are actively engaged in various activities.
Conclusion
Current trends in education support the literacy theories described above. Constructivist theory is gaining more attention, recognition and acceptance in many educational institutions. It premises on the belief that learners “construct” their own learning, and in effect, have better retention of it. “In the Constructivist theory the emphasis is placed on the learner or the student rather than the teacher or the instructor. It is the learner who interacts with objects and events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by such objects or events. The learner, therefore, constructs his/her own conceptualizations and solutions to problems.
Learner autonomy and initiative is accepted and encouraged.” (Van Ryneveld, n.d., n.p.). The literacy theories of Emergent literacy, Literacy identity and Natural literacy fall under Constructivist principles. All advocate learners to derive learning from their own experiences, as experience is still the best teacher. A wise educator understands this and designs a curriculum around these principles to acknowledge utmost respect for the learner. She knows that she is merely instrumental in introducing tools such as stories (like “Best Friends Forever”) and learning activities in igniting the flame of passion for learning in her students.
References
Anstèy, M. & Bull, G. (2006) From Teaching and Learning Multiliteracies: Changing Times, Changing Literacies. International Reading Association.
Indrisano, R. (1995) “Literacy Development”, Journal of Education, vol 177, no. 1.
Norris, J., & Hoffman, P. (1993). Whole Language Intervention for School-age Children. San Diego: Singular Press.
Oittinen, R., (2000) Chapter 4: Children’s Literature and Literature for Children, Translating for Children, 61-71.
Piaget, J. (1959) The Language and Thought of the Child. London: Routledge & Kegen Paul.
Schweiker, K.E., Schweiker, W.F. (1993) “Research Findings on Awareness, Acceptance and Practice of Emergent literacy theory”, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Research Associaiton, Clearwater Beach, Florida.
Sulzby, E. & Teale, W.H. (1991) “Emergent Literacy.” In R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal & P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research Volume II. New York: Longman.
Van Ryneveld, L., (n.d.) “What is constructivism?”. Web.
Venezky, R., Wagner, D. & Ciliberti, B. (Eds.) (1990) “Toward Defining Literacy”, Newark, DE; International Reading Association.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language (E. Hanfmann and G. Vaker, Eds & Trans.) Cambridge, M.A.: MIT Press.
Watkins, R. V., & Bunce, B. H. (1996). Promoting language and literacy skills in preschool classrooms. Invited presentation, Kansas Division for Early Childhood, Manhattan.
Watkins, R. V., Bunce, B. H. (1996), “Natural literacy: Theory and practice for preschool intervention programs”, Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, Summer96, Vol. 16, Issue 2.