Luxury Perspectives: Second-Hand Exclusivity Dissertation

Abstract

This study seeks to understand differences in consumer perceptions about second-hand luxury products. It uses a case study approach to investigate the research phenomenon from the perspectives of American and Chinese customers. Primary data was collected from 300 respondents using the questionnaire survey method and the findings analyzed using SPSS. Key variables that were explored in the investigation included subjective norms, future purchase intentions, personal values, and past purchase history of consumer goods. The findings of the present study reveal that purchase history affects Chinese and American consumer perceptions of luxury products equally. However, significant differences in the way Chinese and American consumers use subjective norms, future purchase intentions, and personal values to determine value are evident.

Introduction

Background of Study

Consumer perception refers to the image people develop about a product or service. It is advanced after a potential customer is made aware of a product’s attributes and uses them to develop a belief system around it (Luo and Suacamram, 2022). In this regard, consumer perception is based on the capacity of consumers to gather, analyze, and disseminate data relating to a product or service. It is important for companies to manage consumer perception because it allows them to lay the foundation for building a positive image about their brands (Wayne and Uribe Sandoval, 2021). This image is developed through the use of various techniques, including psychological manipulation, advertising, and word-of-mouth communication, just to mention a few (Hamilton et al., 2021). By deploying these techniques, companies shape public opinion about their products or brands.

Various factors moderate consumer perceptions because the concept is a psychological construct of human intention. At the same time, people’s opinions and perceptions about brands are shaped by both direct and indirect factors (Klesse et al., 2019). These properties may not necessarily be related to the strength of marketing campaigns or the inherent characteristics of a product or service (Men, Qin and Jin, 2021). They could be operating independently but influenced by other factors that are inherent to the consumer, such as their gender or age (Al-Kwifi, Farha and Zaraket, 2020). Stated differently, positive and negative factors influencing

Consumer perceptions are emotive and they could be difficult to quantify (Al-Kwifi, Farha and Zaraket, 2020). In this regard, marketers have struggled to develop sales models that appeal to varying consumer needs.

The intangible effects of having a positive consumer perception in the corporate space are difficult to quantify. This is because business reputation is earned and companies that have spent years building a positive reputation aggressively safeguard it (Luo and Suacamram, 2022). They do so because negative consumer perceptions could lead to losses in revenue, poor business reputation, and business closure in extreme cases (Wayne and Uribe Sandoval, 2021). In this regard, companies recognize the importance of having a good image to the public because it is the foundation of corporate success.

Processes that lead to the development of consumer perceptions involve three key instruments of operations – perceiver, target, and environment. The perceptual part occurs through a complex interplay of relationships among the three tenets of perception highlighted above (Sparre, 2020). These systems represent three key processes associated with developing consumer perception – collecting, organizing, and disseminating information. In this web of relationships, perceptual development occurs when a consumer ignores all information that is contrary to their beliefs (Men, Qin and Jin, 2021). This decision path is moderated by various market-related factors, which may eventually inform the decision to buy or reject a product.

The luxury goods industry is vulnerable to changes in consumer perception. Its sensitivity emanates from processes that lead to value creation in the industry. Notably, perceptions of prestige, tradition, and elegance define this industry (Wayne and Sienkiewicz, 2022). Therefore, many people have developed a positive perception of luxury brands due to their ability to convey the above-mentioned value properties (Gupta et al., 2018). Therefore, luxury is a psychological construct because it is vulnerable to unpredictable trends, image, and attitudes.

This study focuses on understanding differences in consumer perceptions about second-hand luxury goods and services. The present investigation is conducted from a sociocultural lens with the emphasis being on probing how cultural differences between consumers in the East and West affect consumer perceptions. The focus on the two sets of consumers is justified because the US leads all other nations in creating value for the second-hand luxury industry market (Wayne and Sienkiewicz, 2022). China is second because of its growing middle class and advanced standards of living.

Research Problem

Consumer culture influences people’s perceptions about goods and services. It affects their attitudes, motivation, and expectations, thereby impacting their purchasing intentions (Osafo, Paros and Yawson, 2021). At the same time, the process associated with developing these perceptions is unpredictable. This is because up to 95% of all purchasing decisions made by customers are subconsciously made (Shapiro, 2020). Consequently, it is difficult to track changes in consumer perception or monitor its effects on purchasing behaviors. The multiplicity of factors to consider provides a reason to question the practicality of some of the solutions developed for improving sales performance in the second-hand luxury goods market.

Global uncertainties and an unpredictable geopolitical environment has created uncertainty regarding the future of the luxury industry. The second-hand market is a subset of this industry and it is expected to better protect itself from the prevailing harsh economic environment than the primary industry occupied by major brands (Miklian and Hoelscher, 2021). Consequently, there is uncertainty about the future and it is unclear the extent that unforeseen events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have had on consumer perception and behavior. The lack of reliable information about products or services means that customers are likely to develop false narratives about brands. However, consumer perception creates a safeguard and allows them to filter distorted information and only believe pieces of information that are consistent with their brand idea.

Research Aim and Objectives

Global market uncertainties have highlighted the importance of re-examining the structure of basic industries to make them more adaptable to current market dynamics. The aim of the present study is to investigate differences in consumer perceptions about second-hand luxury items. A case study approach to the investigation will be adopted using American and Chinese customers as sample populations. Four objectives will be met at the end of the investigation. They are outlined below:

1. To determine the extent that consumer purchasing experiences shape the perceptions of American and Chinese consumers about second-hand luxury goods/services
2. To find out the impact that cultural differences between American and Chinese customers will have on their intention to buy second-hand luxury goods/services
3. To quantify the impact that differences in norms between American and Chinese customers will have on their intention to buy second-hand luxury goods/services
4. To estimate the impact of personal values held by American and Chinese customers on their intention to buy second-hand luxury goods/services

Rationale of Study

Consumer perceptions play a significant role to business development beyond influencing individual decisions. For example, businesses are competitive by influencing the long-term relationships they develop with their clients (BMI, 2020). Customer retention rates tell the story of business-customer relationships because firms that enjoy high customer retention rates easily achieve this milestone by developing an emotional relationship with their customers (Alhmoud and Rjoub, 2019). The usefulness of the findings of this study to the luxury goods industry is based on this relationship. It helps to explain processes that lead to the development of a positive consumer perception about a product or service. In this regard, the findings of this paper may be useful to companies because they could benefit from positive customer reviews.

Marketers could equally benefit from this study by obtaining information regarding specific products/service attributes that could create the maximum positive impact on consumer perceptions (BMI, 2020). In this regard, understanding processes that lead to the development of consumer perceptions is likely to help them identify key issues to focus on when developing sales strategies (Alhmoud and Rjoub, 2019). Indeed, most of them depend on the process of

manipulating consumer perceptions to increase sales (BMI, 2020). Broadly, the findings of this study will be useful in expanding the breadth of marketing literature on consumer behavior with a special focus on American and Chinese customers, who form the biggest markets in the world for second-hand luxury goods.

Structure of the Dissertation

The structure of this dissertation accommodates five chapters, each outlining independent and unique stages of developing the research findings. The first one is the introduction section, which sets the stage for the rest of the study by highlighting its background, key concepts, and objectives that will guide the investigation. The second chapter contains a review of the current state of research on the topic of study. The main goal of developing this chapter is to understand the current state of research, identify possible gaps in scholarly works, and unique ways that the findings generated in the probe would fill these gaps.

The third chapter of the present investigation is the methodology section. It outlines and explains techniques that the researcher employed to meet the objectives of the study. The findings generated from implementing these techniques are later presented and analyzed in the fourth chapter of this document, which is the findings and analysis section. In this area of the probe, the researcher will report key findings and analyze them based on their interaction with the theories and concepts that will be mentioned in this review. The last section of this dissertation is the conclusion and recommendations chapter. It contains a summary of key findings and possible strategies that marketers can adopt to gain a positive review of products.

Literature Review

As alluded in chapter 1 above, this literature review section investigates the current state of scholarly research on the study topic. Key issues that will be discussed in this chapter include factors that influence the development of consumer perceptions, peculiarities of the luxury goods market that affect consumer behavior, and factors that moderate their decisions. However, before delving into the details of this analysis, it is important to first understand the theoretical foundation of this investigation.

Theoretical Background

The theoretical framework of this study is based on the consumer perception theory. The justification for including it in the study is rooted in its focus on perception, which is central to the current investigation. The theory explains consumer behavior and motivation in different market and organizational contexts (Howard and Sheth, 2022). In the marketing context, the theory provides a broad platform for analyzing consumer behavior by accounting for all sensory stimuli impacting behavior (Zhang, Jinpeng and Khan, 2020). These senses are basic to every human and they include, seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting. Therefore, perceptions about products or services are created when these senses are activated by marketing stimuli.

Based on the above-mentioned findings, the consumer perception theory postulates that multiple factors could influence consumer behavior, thereby appreciating the complexity of the concept. It is relevant to the present study because it strives to explain key issues that affect consumer buying decisions. Stated differently, it is equipped to help scholars identify issues that appeal to customers (Zhang, Jinpeng and Khan, 2020). Companies that use such information can better utilize their resources and effectively communicate marketing messages to their customers.

In this regard, the proposed theoretical framework will help to explain the complexity of consumer behavior and highlight reasons why they may buy specific products or avoid making such a decision in the first place (Howard and Sheth, 2022). Therefore, the consumer perception theory creates a broad-based and balanced outlook of factors that influence opinions.

Factors that Moderate Consumer Perceptions

The above-mentioned statements highlight the importance of understanding cognitive processes that lead to changes in consumer behavior. These processes are moderated by several intrinsic and extrinsic factors, most of which influence how consumers think of themselves, their expectations for buying products, and experiences that have informed their decisions. These issues highlight factors that moderate consumer perceptions.

Self-Perception

Self-perception refers to the totality of emotions and feelings that one has acquired in life. In this regard, self-perception is a cognitive framework that processes people’s attitudes and feelings, especially as they relate to a product or service (Zheng et al., 2021). However, one’s perception of self is a product of many factors, including other people’s views. Relative to different interpretations of the self, researcher opine that four categories of the concept exist. The first one is the actual self and it describes how people view themselves (Williams and Preston, 2018). The second category is the idealized self and it refers to the image people wish would define their identities. Comparatively, the social self is the third category of perception and it is focused on describing how people think the society perceives them (Zheng et al., 2021). The last category of self-perception is the ideal social self and it refers to how people would like other people to perceive them.

The aforementioned identity typologies help to explain consumer motivations behind specific behaviors. In the context of the current probe, self-perception issues are those that can influence consumer behavior. The could manifest in a variety of ways but the two most common ones are emotional and logical (Williams and Preston, 2018). Research studies suggest that self-perception affects specific consumer behaviors such as the purchase of organic foods, abstinence from animal products, and the avoidance of certain food products, such as pork (Zheng et al., 2021). A study conducted at the University of Massachusetts demonstrated that self-perception influenced consumer behavior (Williams and Preston, 2018). It was supported by another study which investigated consumer perceptions regarding the purchase of environmentally-friendly products (Zheng et al., 2021). Collectively, they affirmed that perceptions of the “self” influenced consumer decisions regarding whether to purchase sustainable goods, or not.

Expected Benefits

As its name suggests, benefit perceptions refer to the positive attributes that a customer expects to enjoy during or after making a purchase. However, these benefits are subjective because they depend on a consumer’s individual characteristics, demographics, and background (Airey et al., 2021). Consumer behavior analysts suggests that people tend to reject generalized perceptions about the value of products or services, especially if such perceptions depart from the norm (Doherty, 2019). Therefore, they need additional evidence to change their views. Health-based studies support this view because they have explored consumer perceptions in different business settings. In one such study, it was established that consumers rejected generalized perceptions about the nutritional value of certain foods, especially if most people deem them unhealthy (Airey et al., 2021). To change this belief, they had to seek additional information from other sources. This example shows that generalized perceptions

about products or services influence people’s insights about them (Farrell and Phungsoonthorn, 2020). Overall, these findings demonstrate that consumer perceptions should be taken into account when it comes to influencing brand decisions.

Past Purchasing Experience

As highlighted in this study, consumer perception is a psychological construct. In this regard, previous purchasing experiences play a critical role in determining consumer perceptions of products or services. The same analogy is true for luxury good items because people’s perceptions of these products play a critical role in defining consumer purchasing intentions (Lamanna, Riedmann and Stewart, 2020). Previous purchasing experiences by buyers are likely to moderate the willingness by consumers to purchase specific brands, products, or services. If these experiences are obtained first-hand, they are likely to have a powerful impact on a consumer’s purchase intentions (Ahmad, 2020). Research studies that affirm this position have investigated purchase intentions from a historical perspective using consumer loyalty and commitment lenses (Abasilim, Gberevbie and Osibanjo, 2019; Ahmad, 2020). Their findings demonstrate that past purchasing experiences could strengthen, or weaken, brand loyalty and commitment (Ahmad, 2020). In this regard, previous purchasing experiences have a lasting impact on consumer perceptions.

Shop owners and companies are cognizant of the effects that previous purchasing experiences have on consumer perceptions. This is why most of them offer after-sales services to ensure that buyers get the best experience (Kornberger and Mantere, 2020). Some brand owners have gone a step further to improve consumer purchasing experiences by investing in better customer relations resources to make their clients feel welcomed and respected (Ahmad, 2020). Previous research studies have drawn a positive relationship between quality customer relations services and improved brand loyalty (Kornberger and Mantere, 2020). Companies that operate in the service industry have invested more resources into this area of marketing more than those that operate in other sectors (Abasilim, Gberevbie and Osibanjo, 2019). Particularly, the tourism and hospitality sector has reported the highest forms of investment in customer service (Wen, Cai and Li, 2021). If bad experiences are shared, they could significantly erode consumer confidence and lead to the death or stagnation of a brand.

Peculiarities of the Luxury Goods Market

Recently, technology has had the most profound impact on consumer perceptions because most business transactions and communications today are happening online (Beig and Khan, 2020). Particularly, the growth of social media and its relevance to brand management has made it possible for potential customers to interact with other buyers and share experiences about their purchases (Alzougool, 2018). This statement is relevant to the process of marketing luxury goods on social media transformation because it has made it possible for consumers from one part of the world to influence the buying patterns of their counterparts in a different section of the globe (Eze, Chinedu-Eze, and Awa, 2021). Thus, transformative forces, such as technology, have the potential to influence future purchase intentions in the luxury goods market.

Price is a key tenet in the exchange of commodity value in the luxury market. It defines perceptions of value between a buyer and seller. Discussions about the concept have focused on balancing quantity and quality concerns (Zhang, Jinpeng and Khan, 2020). Those that address quality issues justify a high-end pricing strategy, while a quantitative assessment has been associated with the ability to avail many products in the market affordably to reach many buyers (Zhang, Jinpeng and Khan, 2020). Perceptions about price are especially important in the luxury goods market because it targets high-end customers. This group of buyers are price insensitive as would be the case with low-income buyers who may switch their loyalty based on a small change in price (Chen and Pain, 2019). Therefore, the characteristics of the target population has to be matched with the price to create a consistent perceptions of value.

The consumer perception theory also mentions price as a key tenet of the luxury goods sector because it communicates value. This is done through perceptions of scarcity that are implied in a product’s pricing plan (Chen and Pain, 2019). The common idea governing consumer decisions is that products are priced expensively because they are scarce. Similarly, the converse is true because proponents of the consumer perception theory further add that products/services attract a low-cost pricing plan because they are easy to find (Eze, Chinedu-Eze, and Awa, 2021). Therefore, in the luxury goods industry, price is based on product availability or scarcity.

In the fashion industry, previous purchasing experiences have a similarly powerful effect on consumer purchasing intentions. This is because the industry is well integrated and glamorous to the extent that a bad fashion review can undermine a product’s inherent value (Eze, Chinedu-Eze, and Awa, 2021). At the same time, the luxury goods market is prone to fast-changing consumer views on products. This attribute makes it difficult to operate in the same manner as other industries do due to their relative stability. This uniqueness is more about the values and belief systems that drive markets more than it is about the products sold (Al-Kwifi, Farha and Zaraket, 2020). For example, a second-hand product sold in the construction industry would receive more attention than one in the fashion industry. This is because the construction sector is driven by pragmatism than emotion, which is the case in the luxury goods industry.

Summary

Despite the growing interest in second-hand luxury products, there is scanty research done on this area of marketing research. Particularly, the researcher did not encounter pieces of evidence of other researchers linking changes in consumer perceptions to the second-hand luxury market. Therefore, this area of research is unique to the present probe for two reasons. The first one is the unique focus on the luxury goods market and the second one is the emphasis on the sale of second-hand luxury goods, which is a relatively underexplored areas of research.

Methodology

This chapter highlights the strategies adopted by the researcher in answering the research questions. The format adopted for this review is consistent with the framework proposed by Subramaniam (2019) and Melnikovas (2018), which suggests that the methodological analysis of a research project should include six levels of review: research philosophy, research design, research approach, time analysis, and data collection techniques/procedures as shown in figure 3.1 below.

Research Philosophy

The philosophy adopted in a research project refers to the world view adopted by the researcher in undertaking the project. It provides the structure and guidance through which data will be collected and highlights possible constraints that may limit researchers’ actions in the process. Four major research philosophies are applicable in research studies – positivism, realism, constructivism, and interpretivism (Management Association, Information Resources, 2021). Based on the merits, demerits, and appropriateness of the above-mentioned approaches to the current study, the researcher employed the positivist approach as the main philosophy underpinning the current investigations.

The positivism research approach was adopted in the investigation because it allows researchers to test hypotheses against a new body of evidence (Esteban-Bravo and Vidal-Sanz, 2021). This approach helped to create a body of research evidence that other researchers could replicate to determine whether the same findings suffice (Nunan, Malhotra and Birks, 2020). Overall, this philosophical approach was appropriate for the investigation because it helped to generate quantifiable results that could be proven through statistical evidence.

Research Approach

The approach adopted by a researcher depends on the selection of the research philosophy outlined above. The positivism research philosophy was selected for the present investigation and it was linked with the deductive research approach. This technique is among approaches mentioned by Zeithaml et al. (2020) – deductive and inductive. The deductive method, which was included in this study because it sets out to investigate whether a given theory/statement is true or false (Kumar and Gautam, 2021). Comparatively, the inductive technique is designed to develop a theory based on a body of evidence (Raju and Prabhu, 2019). The present study sought to test four hypotheses, which have been highlighted in chapter one of this document. Therefore, the deductive approach was employed in the investigation because it enables researchers to test whether specific statements are true or false.

Research Strategy

A research strategy guides a researcher in selecting the best approach to use in answering a set of research questions. According to the research onion format used in this investigation, there are seven main strategies applicable in research investigations – archival research, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, ethnography, grounded theory, and case studies (Management Association, Information Resources. 2021; Patten & Newhart, 2017). The researcher adopted the latter strategy because case studies were appropriate in sampling the views of two sets of respondents representing eastern and western cultures. The case study technique was appropriate for the current investigation because of its usefulness in making comparisons between different sets of variables (Latif et al., 2019). Furthermore, researchers such as Kurtzke and Setkute (2021) have widely adopted it in marketing research.

Research Choice

The choice adopted by a researcher in conducting an academic investigation depends on the type of data desired. The two main research choices used in research are qualitative and quantitative (Brannen, 2017). The latter technique is appropriate to use when a researcher intends to measure quantifiable variables (Management Association, Information Resources. 2021). Comparatively, the qualitative method is appropriate in research investigations where researchers measure subjective variables (Kumar and Gautam, 2021). The present study was based on the quantitative research choice because the researcher was measuring quantifiable data. The technique was similarly consistent with the deployment of statistical techniques for data analysis.

Time Horizon Strategy

The time strategy followed by researchers in academic investigations relates to the time intervals of data collection and analysis. The two main time horizon strategies adopted in academic studies include longitudinal and cross-sectional methods (Allibang, 2020). A cross sectional sample is associated with investigations where researchers collect data at one point in time (Economics and Social Research Council, 2021). Comparatively, longitudinal strategies involve the collection of data over a long period of time (Conway, 2020). Based on this difference in strategy, the researcher used the cross-sectional time horizon technique to conduct the present investigation. This plan was justified by the collection of data at one point in time. Therefore, the views expressed by the respondents could be attributed to the cultural differences between American and Chinese views on second-hand luxury items at one point in time.

Techniques and Procedures

The techniques and procedures used in this investigation refer to the data collection and analysis systems set in place by the researcher to collect information from the respondents. The data collection part highlighted tools and instruments of data collection employed by the researcher to collect the views of second-hand luxury goods consumers. It also explained variables underpinning the study as well as the scale used to measure the respondents’ views. The software used to gather primary data is explained in the analysis section.

Data Collection

The process of gathering data was informed by the researcher’s intention to collect primary and secondary data. Primary data was obtained from American and Chinese consumers, while secondary information was retrieved from published sources of data. These information sources majorly included books and journals, but data from credible websites and institutional reports were included in the analysis as well. The secondary research materials were included in the investigation to compare and contrast secondary and primary data. The goal was to make the study robust (Kumar and Gautam, 2021). Pieces of evidence that were published prior to the year 2017 were excluded from the investigation because the researcher deemed them outdated based on the topic of investigation. Excluding this type of data through this process meant that the researcher only reviewed materials that were published in the last five years 2017-2022. The goal of setting up this inclusion and exclusion criterion was to ensure updated information was used in the probe.

The researcher used the secondary data findings highlighted above to support primary data that were collected using questionnaire surveys. The questionnaire collected two sets of information – demographic and consumer behavior data (see appendix 1). The demographic section sampled the respondents’ personal characteristics, including their gender, income levels, nationality, and education qualifications. These data were included in the investigation because of its moderating effects on consumer behavior (Top Agency, 2020). The importance of sampling this set of data was to gain a deeper understanding of the respondents’ backgrounds and their potential effects on the overall findings. This strategy is consistent with the views of researchers such as Nawaz et al. (2020), Dori and Kemp (2020) who have highlighted the moderating effects of demographic characteristics on people’s buying behaviors.

The second part of the questionnaire sought to sample the respondents’ views on second-hand luxury items based on four key areas of consumer behavior: future consumption intention, personal values, subjective norms and previous purchasing experiences. These variables were included in the questionnaire because they have been used to measure consumer behavior in previous market research studies (Chen et al., 2021; Latif et al., 2019; Steenkamp, 2019). All the four variables under assessment had five statements associated with them. Therefore, in sum, the respondents had to react to 20 statements investigating their perceptions of second-hand luxury items. Their reaction was measured using the 5-Point Likert scale, whose details are explained in the data analysis section of this chapter.

Originally, the researcher sent out 300 questionnaires to followers of multiple social media platforms of luxury brands. The researcher recruited the informants using the convenience sampling method. Researchers often use this technique in environments where it is difficult to contact respondents freely (Emerson, 2021). Therefore, the convenience sampling method allows them to recruit informants whose reach is within means (Kim et al., 2018). This technique formed the basis for contacting two sets of respondents from social media – American and Chinese consumers. Therefore, the goal of using the convenience sampling plan was to identify two samples of respondents from China and the US who would shares their views on second-hand luxury items. The first sample of respondents consisted of 150 people who worked and resided in China. The second sample of informants was made up of a similar number of people who lived in the US. Therefore, collectively, the study sampled the views of 300 people who came from the US and China.

Data Analysis

The researcher sampled the respondents’ views using the 5-point Likert scale. This measure of assessment has been used in similar studies that have investigated consumer behavior, such as that of Ghosh (2021), Shanahan, Palmer, and Salas (2021) which have used the scale to measure consumer confidence. Four key variables that were analyzed in the study included previous purchasing experiences, personal values, subjective norms, and future consumption intentions. These variables were included in the study to evaluate consumer perceptions because they share a close link with consumer attributes investigated in previous studies.

Future consumption intentions have been investigated as a function of people’s social capital in studies authored by Fei, Zeng and Jin (2022). In this regard, it has been used to predict future ethical consumption behaviors and consumer happiness (Chen et al., 2021). Previous purchasing experiences have similarly been mentioned in studies that have strived to predict market behavior in the social media context (Abeza, O’Reilly and Seguin, 2019). Particularly, there is a close link or association drawn between previous purchasing experiences and consumers’ cultural backgrounds (Appau and Awaworyi, 2019). This relationship explains why purchasing experiences have been contextualized within the intercultural setting or literature.

Its integration in this study as a core variable stems from this feature.

Subjective norms and personal values have equally been mentioned in studies that have investigated consumer behavior in the global marketplace (Wang et al., 2022). Most of these studies have adopted a futuristic approach to the investigation by investigating the impact of digital commerce on consumer behavior (Kreuter et al., 2020). These investigations give credence to the inclusion of personal values and subjective norms in the current investigation.

The findings related to the four variables highlighted above were captured in part B of the study questionnaire (see appendix 1) and the data analyzed using the Statistical Packages for The Social Sciences (SPSS) method. The researcher used this software for data analysis because it has a rich history in social research studies (Brooker, Barnett and Cribbin, 2018). For example, van Wingerde and van Ginkel (2021) have used the technique in social research to measure psychological outcomes. Therefore, the justification for its use is rooted in its adoption in marketing literature.

Validity of Study

As highlighted in this chapter, the researcher obtained primary data using questionnaires.

The statements contained in the questionnaire were checked for consistency to make sure they addressed each of the research variables linked to them. The researcher organized the data for statistical measurement of the views held by the sample population. The validity of the data obtained was guaranteed by the multiplicity of sources relied on as evidence in the investigation (Ahmed and Ting, 2020). The layout of the questions was based on the basic understanding of factors impacting consumer perceptions in a multicultural context.

Similarly, the wording of the statements posed to the respondents was based on the understanding of ethical issues governing the relationship between a researcher and a respondent, as proposed by Guleria and Kaur (2022). Similarly, issues that are prevailing in the world of e-commerce and individual behavior were considered when developing the questionnaire statements. Overall, the questions posed to the informants in the questionnaire were simple and easy to interpret. Their contents were based on the findings of chapter two of this document as well as the scope of the investigations outlined in the introductory chapter.

Reliability of Findings

As highlighted in this chapter, the present study sampled the vies of two different sets of respondents – American and Chinese. This distinction in the data collection process posed a reliability challenge for the researcher. To remedy the concern, the questionnaires given to the respondents were distributed and presented to the participants in the same manner and using similar online platforms to eliminate cases of lack of uniformity (van Wingerde and van Ginkel, 2021). To safeguard the reliability of results obtained from two different sets of respondents, the questionnaires sent out to the Asian respondents were translated to Chinese language for accurate representation of facts before they were sent to the participants.

The completed questionnaires from Chinese informants were received in their native language but later translated into English for consistency of data analysis. Therefore, the process of translating the questionnaire into two languages that suited the respondents’ native languages is assumed to bring consistency and accuracy in the representation of facts (van Wingerde and van Ginkel, 2021). At the end of the research process, the respondents completed the questionnaires and sent the completed forms back to the researcher. It was critical to use electronic means of data transfer because it was practical and efficient to manage the data collection and analysis process this way (Boegershausen et al., 2022). Therefore, the online format of the data collection and analysis process helped facilitate the research process.

Ethical Considerations

The use of human subjects in research investigations creates an ethical conflict between researchers and their informants. This tension occurs because of the implied responsibility of researchers to protect the interests of their informants throughout different stages of the research process (Management Association, Information Resources. 2021). In light of this responsibility, the researcher addressed three ethical issues underpinning the current investigation. They include informed consent, privacy and confidentiality of data and treatment of information.

Informed Consent

Respondents who took part in the current investigation did so voluntarily. They were not paid or coerced to participate in the study because the researcher made them understand that the objective of the study was to fulfill academic and not commercial objectives. The process of making informants aware of the background and context of a study is a fundamental principle of ethical conduct (Bromley et al., 2020). Those who participated in the study were also made aware of their right to withdraw from the investigation without any repercussion. However, those who chose to withdraw midway through the data collection process forfeited this right as their findings could be used in the investigation.

Privacy and Confidentiality

The privacy of respondents is a fundamental right that ought to be protected when research investigations are made public. The aim is to extract information from the informants objectively without allowing personal prejudice to influence data collection, analysis, and interpretation process. Consistent with the need to protect the identity of the informants, the researcher did not disclose the names, locations, or other personal identifiable markers of the respondents in the research. This strategy aligns with the recommendations of the Management Association, Information Resources (2021), which emphasizes the need to report data anonymously when researchers intend to keep the identities of their informants a secret. Therefore, those who participated in the study had the freedom to share their views on second-hand consumer luxury items without the fear of victimization.

Treatment of Data

As highlighted in this paper, the researcher collected data from American and Chinese consumers regarding their perceptions of second-hand luxury items. These pieces of information were stored safely in the researcher’s computer and secured using a password. The goal of doing so was to prevent unauthorized persona from accessing or modifying the data. This safeguard is consistent with the views of Berger et al. (2020) who insists on the importance of establishing electronic safeguards, including data encryption to maintain the integrity of research data. Thus, it is assumed that the electronic safeguards mentioned above were adequate to protect the data. The overall data collected from the researcher process were destroyed at the end of the research investigation.

Findings and Analysis

This chapter of the study highlights the findings obtained after implementing the research strategies outlined above. It is divided into two key sections with the first one presenting the results of the questionnaire surveys and the second part integrating these findings within the existing body of scholarly research. The first section presents two sets of data emanating from the two sections of the questionnaire – demographic and consumer analysis parts (see appendix 1). A comprehensive description of the findings is highlighted below.

Findings

In this section of the analysis, two sets of data were sought to provide a complete set of information for the review. The first one relates to the respondents’ demographic background and it was collected with the aim of understanding how these variables impacted the views and opinions of the respondents. The second section of the findings part describes the views of the informants regarding second-hand luxury items, as was intended in the questionnaire.

Demographic Findings

The demographic section of the questionnaire captured information relating to the respondents’ background. Their nationality, age, gender, education qualifications, and income levels were sampled in the study. These measures were included in the questionnaire design because previous research studies have affirmed their effects on consumer behavior (Hermansen and Penner, 2022; JP Morgan, 2021). The findings relating to each demographic variable are highlighted below.

Nationality

The respondents’ nationality was central to this investigation because the researcher sought to compare the views of consumers from different cultural backgrounds. As highlighted in Table 4.1 below, 157 and 139 informants from China and the US, respectively, took part in the study. These figures represent a balanced view of the respondents’ views on the second-hand luxury market, thereby providing a basis for making comparisons of consumers’ purchasing intentions.

Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents according to nationality

Originally, the researcher sought the views of 300 respondents, but as shown in Table 4.1 above, four of the respondents did not meet the inclusion criterion of being either Chinese or American to take part in the investigation. Therefore, the final sample of respondents included in subsequent parts of this analysis summed was 296 people, as opposed to the original 300 participants. An inferential analysis was conducted after the descriptive analysis highlighted above. The objective was to investigate whether nationality had an effect on the respondents’ findings. Data generated from this test appears in Appendix 2 and they show that this variable influenced informants’ views because all the statements posed in the questionnaire met the p>0.05 threshold of significance, which should affirm a positive correlation.

Gender

The respondents’ gender was the second demographic variable investigated in this study. It was included in the questionnaire design because scholars affirm the effects of gender on consumer behavior (Bryan, Pope and Rankin-Wright, 2021). Based on this acknowledgement, it was important to determine whether this variable affected respondents’ views, or not. Table 4.2 below indicates that there were more female consumers who took part in the study compared to their male counterparts. The females accounted for 54.3% of the total population sampled in the study, while men accounted for 45.7% of the same population.

Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents according to gender

An inferential analysis was conducted after the descriptive analysis outlined above to investigate whether gender had an effect on the respondents’ findings. The results of these tests appear in Appendix 2 and they show that gender did not affect informants’ views. Only 1/20 statements posed in the questionnaire met the p>0.05 threshold of significance, which could have affirmed a positive correlation. This finding is inconsistent with previous research studies, which affirm differences in consumer behavior outcomes based on gender (Lee and Chung, 2020; Statista, 2022). Thus, it could be assumed that generational differences are changing gender-based consumer views.

Age Group

Age was the third demographic variable sampled in this investigation. This data feature was included in the probe because researchers affirm its influence on consumer buying patterns and decision-making processes (Brandt et al., 2022; Elliott, 2022) As highlighted in Table 4.3 below, most of the respondents who took part in the investigation were younger than 39 years old. This pattern of distribution means that the perceptions about second-hand luxury items sampled in the study largely represented the views of a young demographic, or market.

Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents according to age

Similar to other demographic variables investigated in this study, an inferential analysis was conducted after the descriptive analysis outlined above to investigate whether age had an effect on the respondents’ findings. The results appear in Appendix 2 and they show that this variable did not affect the informants’ views. At the same time, none of the statements posed in the questionnaire met the p>0.05 threshold of significance, which could have affirmed a positive correlation.

Income Level

Income level was another demographic variable linked to the present study. It was included in the questionnaire design because previous studies mentioned its moderating effect on consumer behavior (Lämsä and Keränen, 2020). As highlighted in Table 4.4 below, most participants who took part in the investigation earned between $10,000 and $30,000, annually. Additionally, those who earned more than $40,000 formed the smallest sample of respondents accounting for 7.7% of the sample population.

Table 4.4: Distribution of respondents according to income level

Similar to other demographic variables investigated in this study, an inferential analysis was conducted after the descriptive analysis section outlined above to investigate whether income levels had an effect on the respondents’ findings, or not. The results appear in Appendix 2 and they show that this variable did not affect informants’ views. At the same time, none of the statements posed in the questionnaire met the p>0.05 threshold of significance, which should affirm a positive correlation.

Education Qualifications

Part of the information sought from the respondents in the data collection process related to their education qualifications. This measure of analysis was included in the investigation because previous research studies have affirmed the moderating effects of education on consumer behavior (Kurtzke and Setkute, 2021). Therefore, it was important to investigate whether the educational differences among the respondents affected their views of the research issue, or not. To this end, the findings reported in Table 4.5 below indicate that most of the participants who gave their views in the investigation had an undergraduate degree. This percentage of people accounted for 55.7% of the sample population, while the smallest group was comprised of informants who had a “PhD of higher” education qualification.

Table 4.5: Distribution of respondents according to education qualifications

An inferential analysis was conducted to understand whether the above-mentioned education qualifications had an effect on the respondents’ findings. The results appear in Appendix 2 and they show that this variable had no influence on the informants’ views. In other words, none of the statements posed in the questionnaire to assess the informants’ perceptions regarding second-hand luxury products met the p>0.05 threshold of significance, which should affirm a positive correlation.

Consumer View Analysis

The consumer view analysis section of this study relates to the findings obtained from the second part of the questionnaire. It is part of the descriptive analysis section of this inquiry because characteristics of data, such as mean, media, and standard of deviation, were used to come up with the findings. This section of the probe sought to sample the views of the informants regarding four issues affecting perception – future consumption intentions, personal values, subjective norms, and previous purchasing experiences. As evidenced in previous research studies, these variables play a key role in analyzing consumer behavior patterns (Lewis, Ricard and Klijn, 2018; Ugaddan and Park, 2019). Details relating to each aspect of the analysis are highlighted below. The findings are categorized into two groups representing the views of Chinese and American informants.

Future Consumption Intentions

The first part of the probe in the consumer analysis section of the questionnaire sought to sample the views of respondents regarding their future consumption intentions of second-hand luxury items. Five statements were associated with this variable and as highlighted in Table 4.6 below, the Americans had a mean of 4 for this statement, meaning that they “disagreed” with most of the statements made.

Table 4.6: Findings on future consumption intentions of American consumers when buying second-hand luxury items

The findings highlighted above mean that most Americans are not anticipating to buy second-hand luxury items. This expectation could stem from the consumerism culture in America where having the latest items is valuable and fashionable (Tang and Chan, 2017). Comparatively, Table 4.7 below shows that Chinese customers posted a mean of between 1 and 2, implying that they “strongly agreed” or “agreed” with the statements posed.

Table 4.7: Findings on future consumption intentions of Chinese consumers when buying second-hand luxury items:

The above finding mean that Chinese buyers are more willing to buy second-hand luxury items in the future compared to their American counterparts. The disparity in outcomes could stem from the conservative vs. consumerism cultures that exist in both countries (Ross, 2019). Stated differently, China is more conservative than the US and consequently its inhabitants have fewer reservations about buying second-hand luxury items in the future.

Personal Values

A review of the customers’ personal values was an important tenet of the present study. The findings contained in Table 4.8 below reveal that most American customers held largely negative personal values that made them less accepting of second-hand luxury products and services.

Table 4.8: Consistency of personal values of American consumers with second-hand luxury items

The negative views of American respondents towards second-hand products is affirmed in the present investigation because the average mean of the responses given by the participants was 4. This number means that they “disagreed” with most of the statements posed to them. This objection is an indication that their personal values are inconsistent with the acceptance of second-hand luxury products. This outcome is consistent with the findings of previous scholars who indicate that that the dominance of American society has made it less accepting of secondary products (Li and Tian, 2021). Comparatively, Chinese respondents did not exhibit the same product features because their views showed less cultural resistance to second-hand products compared to their American counterparts. This behaviour is consistent with the attitudes of information technology employees in China, whose work ethic and behaviours were analysed for performance (Wang et al., 2020). Table 4.9 below shows that most of the statements associated with this variable had a mean of 2 – meaning that they agreed with most of them.

Table 4.9: Consistency of personal values of Chinese consumers with second-hand luxury items

The above findings show that there is a difference in personal values between Chinese and American consumers which make them react to second-hand luxury products differently. Chinese customers are more accepting of these products, while their American counterparts hold hostile views. This disparity in outcome could be traced to the spread of Confucian principles in China, which promotes modesty and servitude as core social values (Wang et al., 2021). The Confucian philosophy represents the cultural inclination of most countries in Asia, thereby providing a snapshot of the cultural background that could be creating conditions for accepting second-hand luxury goods and services (Ugaddan and Park, 2019). Therefore, philosophically, Chinese consumers could be different from their American counterparts.

Subjective Norms

The third variable analysed in this study which could influence consumer perception was subjective norms. It was included in the present investigation based on its multiple mentions in consumer behaviour studies (Milkman, 2017; Nguyen et al., 2022; Zhai, Gao and Wang, 2019). It has also been stated in leadership and management literature as a directive force that can be used to harness or destroy organizational potential (Omilion-Hodges & Sugg, 2019). Table 4.10 below highlights the views of American consumers who “disagreed” with most of the statements posed to them. This finding sufficed because the average mean of the statements posed to them was 4, which signifies disapproval.

Table 4.10: Consistency of subjective norms of American consumers with second-hand luxury items

The subjective norms of American buyers with second-hand luxury products could be traced to the glamorous nature of their culture, which gives emphasis to originality and exclusivity (Huang, 2021). Therefore, it is not surprising that the American consumers did not share norms that were consistent with the adoption of second-hand products. Comparatively, the Chinese culture rewards humility and servitude, which are consistent with people who appreciate second-hand products (Latif et al., 2019). This view is affirmed by the findings of table 4.11 below, which indicates an average mean of 2.

Table 4.11: Consistency of subjective norms of Chinese consumers with second-hand luxury items

The above-mentioned findings imply that the respondents “agreed” or “strongly agreed” with the statements posed. Therefore, the difference in views between Chinese and American informants could be traced to their varied philosophical backgrounds.

Previous Purchasing Experiences

Past buying experience was the last variable examined in the present study. It sought to find out the impact that historical purchases have on consumer perceptions of second-hand luxury products. The views of American consumers are highlighted in Table 4.12 below.

Table 4.12: Effects of previous purchasing experiences on Americans’ perceptions of second-hand luxury items

According to the findings highlighted in Table 4.12 above, the respondents held favourable views regarding the relationship between historical purchase experiences and their perceptions of secondary products. This finding is consistent with research studies authored by Rendeci (2022) Lee and Hwang (2022), which affirm the same relationship in studies that have investigated consumer behaviour in digital marketing. According to Table 4.13 below, Chinese respondents similarly held favourable views of the relationship between previous purchasing experiences and consumer perceptions. This statement is supported by the low value of the mean scores for the statements posed to the respondents.

Table 4.13: Effects of previous purchasing experiences on Chinese perceptions of second-hand luxury items

The impact of previous purchasing experiences on consumer perceptions emerged as the only variable where the views of Chinese and American consumers converged. Therefore, it could be deduced that the influence of previous purchasing experiences on consumer purchasing actions cuts across both American and Chinese cultures to influence consumer perceptions.

Analysis

The findings highlighted above were meant to investigate differences in consumer perceptions about second-hand luxury items among consumers from eastern and western cultures. Relative to this plan, the focus of the present probe was on highlighting differences between both sets of cultures, which largely define consumer behavior around the world (McKinskey and Company, 2018). Studies that have delved into this area of research have defined Eastern cultures as those representing consumer groups in Asia, Middle East, Latin America, and Africa (Hartono et al., 2021). Comparatively, those that refer to western culture represent consumer groups in Europe, North America and Australia (De Mooij, 2019). The findings highlighted above have highlighted differences in perception. These variations are further discussed below according to the four key variables underpinning the study.

Subjective Norms

The findings of this study showed a difference in subjective norms between Chinese and American consumers. The subjective norms of the latter category were inconsistent with the second-hand luxury market because Americans view used products as inferior to their original counterparts. However, the Chinese customers are motivated by pragmatism and thus have a positive view of used items. Therefore, their subjective norms are likely to accommodate the same level of tolerance and it is likely to impact consumer behavior.

Personal Value

The findings of this study revealed differences in personal values between American and Chinese respondents. The American consumers held values that were inconsistent with second-hand luxury items, while the Chinese counterparts had those that aligned with the industry. Stated, differently, they were more accepting of second-hand luxury products than their American counterparts. Based on this realization, researcher have highlighted differences in lifestyle choices between east and western cultures as a point of concern (Saleem, Shenbei and Hanif, 2020). These differences have been investigated from the perspectives of consumer lifestyle choices, product placement strategies, and the willingness to buy “green” or organic products (Hertz, Mattes and Shook, 2021). The current findings reveal that consumer behavior is expansive and complex.

To understand this complexity, it is important to review differences between first-hand and second-hand luxury products. The perceptual gap between the two needs to be highlighted in this probe because most of the arguments made for, or against, either types of products has a perceptual value. However, there is a commonly shared suspicion among consumers that people who tend to buy second-hand luxury clothes are cheap (Yuan, Leng and Wang, 2022). They are accused of desiring the status that comes with luxury but are unwilling to pay the price for an original luxury product (Hu, Pan and Chen, 2021). On the contrary, some customers have argued that purchasing intentions should be a logical decision and refrain from wearing new products when the old ones work (Dalessandro, 2018). This argument is commonly used in the fashion industry more than any other economic sector (Hansaj, 2022). Its adoption in this sector is motivated by increased fashion cycles, which make it more desirable to change clothes faster than it is to prove that they are genuine.

Future Consumption Intentions

The findings of this paper have shown that purchasing intentions affect the perceptions of both American and Chinese consumers about second-hand luxury products. However, Chinese respondents were more enthusiastic about shopping for such items unlike their American counterparts. At the same time, cost has been used to distinguish similar products from each other and act as a source of competitive appeal for rivals in a market (Lim et al., 2020). It has this effect because Chinese customers are price-sensitive and could abandon a product or service for a cheaper option if there is enough motivation to do so.

Luxurious goods are often priced at a premium because they are designed to appeal to wealthy consumers. The second-hand luxury market offers consumers an opportunity to enjoy the same prestige at a lower cost. Several reasons have been highlighted for this disparity with changes in production systems and processes receiving the highest number of mentions (Gai and Klesse, 2019). Particularly, researchers point to the effect that technology has had in lowering production costs of luxury items by democratizing production activities (Lim et al., 2020). Therefore, the growth and spread of the internet has made it possible for people to access luxury items affordably.

History of Purchase

The history of purchase was identified as the most common variable that united the views of the Chinese and American respondents in this study. Past shopping experiences have a perceptual cost to the consumer because discounted items are often deemed to be of poor quality. This statement draws credence from research investigations developed by García-Canal et al. (2018) which have highlighted the link between consumer price perceptions and product quality. Their arguments suggest that the higher the price of a product, the better the perception that consumers would have towards its quality.

In this regard, the lower price of second-hand luxury items implies that they are of an inferior quality than the original versions. However, consumers do not often think this way when making purchasing decisions (Lim et al., 2020). Indeed, price should not be used as a reliable measure of quality because distortions in perceptions affect how people view products or services. Furthermore, market manipulation and other factors that affect cost of goods, such as taxes, play a significant role in determining the price of a product or service (Lim et al., 2020). In this regard, quality cannot be used as an indicator of product ranking.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion

The aim of the present study has been to investigate differences in consumer perceptions about second-hand luxury items among consumers from eastern and western cultures. A case study approach to the investigation was adopted and it helped the researcher to investigate the research phenomenon from the perspectives of American and Chinese customers. Four objectives were met in the investigations and the first one confirmed that purchasing intentions affected the perceptions of both American and Chinese consumers about second-hand luxury products.

This study also highlighted the role of cultural differences between the two sets of respondents as a significant tool for changing perceptions. However, it was discovered that American and Chinese customers had different norms and personal values that created differences in their perceptions of these products. Notably, Chinese respondents were more accommodative of second-hand luxury items but not as compared to their American counterparts. This outcome could be attributed to modesty and humility, which are key hallmarks of Chinese culture. Comparatively, America has a consumer culture that is individualistic and prideful. These findings reveal that cultural differences between Americana and Chinese customers have the potential to create differences in consumer perceptions regarding second-hand luxury products.

Recommendations

Based on the evidence espoused in this paper, it is possible to assume that the potential to improve consumer perceptions rests within the capacity of a business to create an emotional connection with its customers. This statement is buoyed by the fact that an emotional connection to a brand is more valuable than those that are profitable (Chen and Pain, 2019). Relative to this statement, it is estimated that customers with an emotional connection to brands are 50% more valuable than those who do not have such connections. Therefore, it is believed that brands can be highly effective in maintaining their competitiveness if they develop an emotional connection with their customers. Marketers may use differences in cultural backgrounds between Chinese and American consumers to develop competitive products that appeal to both groups.

It is equally important for future researchers to use a different sample of respondents from Eastern and western countries to find out if the same findings will suffice. The present study used Chinese consumers to represent consumer perceptions about eastern cultures and those of the US to represent western culture. Future studies may analyze Australia or UK consumers as well as other developing markets, such as India, Middle East, an Africa to get a balanced view.

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Appendix

Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Dear Participant,

Thank you for taking part in this study. This research project investigates cultural differences in the perception of western and eastern consumers regarding second-hand luxury items. The investigation draws from your cultural perspective regarding shopping for second-hand luxury products. It seeks to sample your perspectives on shopping based on four fundamental areas of analysis – personal values, subjective norms, future consumption intentions, and previous purchasing experiences. Please, feel free to answer the questions below as you deem appropriate.

Part A – Demographic Data

[Please, (✔) tick on the appropriate boxes]

What is your gender?

• ☐ Male
• ☐ Female
• ☐ Prefer not to say

What is your age bracket?

• ☐ 18-29 Years
• ☐ 30-39 Years
• ☐ 40-40 Years
• ☐ 50+ Years

What is your nationality?

• ☐ American
• ☐ Chinese
• ☐ Other

What is your highest educational qualification?

• ☐ High school or lower
• ☐ Diploma
• ☐Undergraduate Degree
• ☐Master’s Degree
• ☐ PhD or higher

What is your income level per year?

• ☐ Less than $10,000
• ☐ $10,000 – $20,000
• ☐ $20,000 – $30,000
• ☐ $ 30,000 – $40,000
• ☐ More than $40,000

Part B – Consumer View Analysis

Please, tick (✔) on the option that best describes your sentiments vis-à-vis the associated statements.

Future Consumption Intentions

I would recommend a second-hand luxury product to a potential buyer

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

I would share the link to a second-hand luxury product on social media for other people to see and possibly buy

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

I would recommend a second-hand store to someone who wants to buy luxury items

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

I would recommend second-hand luxury items as a gift to a loved one

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

I can wear second-hand luxury products for special occasions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Personal Values

If asked by my friends, I would freely admit that I am wearing second-hand luxury clothes

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Pre-owned luxurious products are trusted in the same manner as people do their brand new versions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Second-hand luxury products are socially acceptable even though they have been used by other people

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Second-hand items are as luxurious as their brand new versions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Second-hand luxury products are as unique as their brand new versions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Subjective Norms

Second-hand luxury products have the same quality as their original versions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Pre-owned luxury clothes serve the same purpose as their original versions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Second-hand luxury goods look as aesthetically appealing as their new versions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Previously owned luxury products give their owners the same status as their original versions

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Second-hand luxury products are hygienically safe despite prior use

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Previous Purchasing Experiences

Second-hand luxury products are desirable because they are owned by rich people

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Owners of luxury brands are likely to take care of them better than those who do not own prestigious products

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

The history of a prestigious product plays a critical role in informing my decision on whether to buy it, or not

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Old luxurious products are more valuable than current ones

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

My family’s views regarding second-hand luxury products could influence my decision on whether to buy one, or not

• ☐ Strongly Agree
• ☐ Agree
• ☐ Neither Agree nor Disagree
• ☐ Disagree
• ☐ Strongly Disagree

Thank you for participating in the study!

*The End*

Appendix 2: Inferential Analysis Findings

Impact of Nationality on Respondents’ Views

Impact of Gender on Respondents’ Views

Impact of Age Group on Respondents’ Views

Impact of Nationality on Respondents’ Views

Impact of Nationality on Respondents’ Views