The introduction
The effect of MDMA on people’s brain
When speaking about neurobiology of MDMA (3,4 meythylenedioxymethamphetamine) abuse, it is necessary to highlight some fundamentals concerning the effect of one of the major drugs on people’s brain. First of all, it should be pointed out that ecstasy impacts on dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons.
However, one is to keep in mind that the effect on neurons is neurotoxic. The effect of the drug was studied on the basis of animal model. Thus, rodents and primates took part in the research. “Recent studies in transgenic and knockout mice identified the role of dopamine transporters, nitric oxide, apoptotic proteins, and inflammatory cytokines in amphetamines neurotoxicity” (Itzhak & Achat-Mendes, 2004, p. 249).
Later, it became obvious that dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotoxicity can be also applied to human studies; so, the outcomes of human abuse of ecstasy could also be investigated.
As far as neurobiology of MDMA abuse was studied on the basis of animal research and the behavioral corollaries, one can make a conclusion that the most important methods of research were case study, experiment, and survey (see below).
The body
The methods of research and their detailed description
Yacoubian’s survey
3,4-meythylenedioxymethamphetamine impacts on central nervous system. The drug is recognized to be one of the strongest psychostimulants. MDMA is considered to be one of the most widespread drugs on the territory of the Midwest and the West Coast of America. Generally, it should be pointed out that “A study of drug-using behavior of 43000 10th graders in the US showed that 7% had lifetime ecstasy use, 5% had used within the past year and 2% within the previous 30 days” (Yacoubian, 2002, p. 225-230).
Repeated use of the drug causes not only addiction, but also depression and violent behavior. Neuronal damage was observed from animal and human investigations. The key variables, which were used in the research included DA (levels of dopamine), DAT (DA transporter), 5 HT (5-hydroxytriptamine), 5HTT (5-HT transporter).
Neurotoxicity and depletion seem to define the effects of MDMA. Thus, neurotoxicity was used to define cell death; while depletion is mostly associated with depletion of monoamines.
The methods of research are of particular attention, as case study gave the researchers an opportunity to gather detailed information about neurobiological effects of MDMA on animals and human beings. Moreover, it became possible to obverse the behavioral processes of test objects over a period of time.
Thus, it is obvious that case study cannot exist without experiment. In other words, both methods cannot be regarded separately. A survey of 3500 visitors, in its turn, provided researchers with an opportunity to reveal poly-drug use of MDMA, METH, and cocaine. Due to the method of research, it became possible to define the most common drugs.
Parrott’s experiment methods
Case study and experiment methods, which were related to MDMA users, provided the researchers with an opportunity to establish an interdependence between the dose of the drug and cognitive impairments. “Cognitive deficits were identified in 19, 52 and 73% of novice, moderate and heavy ecstasy users, respectively; these deficits were attributed to hippocampal and pre-frontal cortex dysfunction as a result of drug use” (Parrott et. al., 2002, p. 309-312). So, due to the above-mentioned methods it was proven that METH is considered to be more neurotoxic than ecstasy.
A survey gave the researchers an opportunity to establish the so-called environment of METH-abused and MDMA users. Thus, according to the data, METH is used by persons who know each other (in other words, the drug is used in familiar environment), and MDMA is mostly used by large groups of people, who do not know each other (in other words, the drug is used in a novel environment).
Experiments with animals (rodents), gave the researchers an opportunity to establish an interdependence between a stressful environment and neurotoxicity of 3,4-meythylenedioxymethamphetamine. Thus, it was proven that stress reduces neurotoxicity. Moreover, it should be pointed out that MDMA contains some other substances, which cause the so-called effect of neuroprotection. For this reason, one can make a conclusion that neurotoxicity of MDMA as compared with METH is lower.
Kish’s case study
The results of case study show that ecstasy impacts on dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons. There is a certain interdependence between depression and serotonergic depletion. On the other hand, it was proven that the effect of MDMA on dopaminergic neurons is more desctructive, as it may lead to development of Parkinsonism in humans.
Generally, the assumption seems to be rather ambiguous, as “it was argued that there is no direct evidence linking MDMA abuse to Parkinson’s disease, and that some of the methods and criteria employed to determine monoamines’ depletion in human studies were inadequate” (Kish, 2003, p. 1219-1223).
However, it should be pointed out that the depletion of levels of dopamine in Parkinson’s disease is higher in relation to the depletion of monoamines. “Therefore, a reasonable concern with human METH and/or MDMA abuse is whether subtle neurotoxicity might render the organism more susceptible to future neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease” (Itzhak & Achat-Mendes, 2004, p. 250).
Generally, the methods the researchers used were quite persuasive; however, some important disadvantages cannot be neglected too. Thus, it is still unclear whether the research can be called totally reliable or no. In my opinion, one can trust the results of case study and experiment, but it is evident that some errors may exist.
For instance, the effect of MDMA on brain depends upon the accuracy of the experiment. In other words, one is to keep in mind that human users of MDMA practice other drugs too. For this reason, other substances, including alcohol, cocaine, etc. impact on the qualities and, therefore, the effects of 3,4-meythylenedioxymethamphetamine.
On the other hand, it is necessary to remember that MDMA may contain numerous other substances (drugs), which most widespread are ketamine, salicylates, METH, etc. Thus, as far as MDMA and other substances may increase neurotoxicity, such elements as “ketamine and dextromethorphan can attenuate neurotoxicity by blockade of N-methyl-Daspartate
(NMDA) type of glutamate receptors which is known to afford neuroprotection” (Itzhak & Achat-Mendes, 2004, p. 250-251). That is why the methods cannot be regarded as totally reliable; there can be some inherent problems of the study.
The above-mentioned limitations of clinical investigations proved the interdependence between the effects of 3,4-meythylenedioxymethamphetamine and its chemical composition. In other words, one can make a conclusion that the pharmacological effects of MDMA depend upon the accuracy of the experiment.
The conclusion
Case study, experiment and survey
Case study, experiment, and survey are recognized to be the most widespread research methods. They provide the researchers with an opportunity to gather important statistical data and establish a relation between different variables. However, it should be noted that any method of the research contains certain errors within acceptable limits.
References
Itzhak, Y. & Achat-Mendes, C. (2004). Methamphetamine and MDMA (Ecstasy) Neurotoxicity: “Of Mice and Men”. University of Miami School of Medicine. Retrieved from: https://www.hawaii.edu/
Kish, S. J. (2003). What is the Evidence that Ecstasy (MDMA) Can Cause Parkinson’s Disease? Mov. Disord. 18, 1219 – 1223.
Parrott, A. C., Buchanan, T., Scholey, A. B., Heffernan, T., Ling, J., & Rodgers, J. (2002). Ecstasy/MDMA Attributed Problems Reported by Novice, Moderate and Heavy Recreational Users. Hum. Psychopharmacol. Clin. Exp. 17, 309 – 312.
Yacoubian, G. S. Jr. (2002). Correlates of Ecstasy Use among Tenth Graders Surveyed Through Monitoring the Future. J. Psychoactive Drugs 34, 225 – 230.