Introduction
In sign languages, information is articulated by hands and perceived visually. However, part of the meaning is conveyed by non-manual means, which include eyes, body, and mouth (Bank et al. 248). Mouth actions are the focus of this paper, and researchers distinguish two types of mouth actions: mouth gestures and mouthings. Mouth gestures are mouth actions “inherent in the signed language that may or may not have an independent meaning and that may or may not be lexically bound to a manual sign” (Bank et al. 249). In contrast, mouthings are derived from the spoken language and are lexically bound to a manual sign (Bank et al. 249). This paper aims at exploring both types of mouth morphemes. First, it will describe how mouth gestures are used in three different sign languages: American Sign Language (ASL), Italian Sign Language (LIS), and Sign Language of the Netherlands (NGT). The second point of interest of this paper is to discover how spoken language influences mouth morphemes in these three sign languages.
Comparison of Mouth Gestures in ASL, LIS, and NGT
Mouth gestures are inherent in sign language and do not originate in the surrounding spoken language. Therefore, this type of mouth action involves “various configurations of the jaw, lips, cheeks and tongue and imply some air movement or ‘noises’” (Fontana 106). The role of mouth gestures is threefold. First, they can serve to distinguish between two manual homonyms. For example, in LIS, the words “impossible” and “dead” are distinguished only by the presence of the mouth morpheme (puffed cheek and the release of air) in the word “impossible” (Fontana 107). Another function of mouth gestures is adverbial or adjectival. For example, in ASL, the mouth morpheme “clench” means “extremely” and is used to modify the adjectives shown as manual signs (Bickford and Fraychineaud 40). It implies that the manual sign “clean” combined with the mouth morpheme “clench” would mean “extremely clean.”
The third function of mouth gestures is expressive and can be compared to manual gestures made by people using the spoken language (Fontana 118). Sandler found out that signers of different sign languages used mouth gestures in similar expressive ways when retelling the cartoon that they were shown (253). For instance, they tried to convey the vibrations that they felt at the moments when a hearing person would hear a sound. Thus, mouth gestures perform similar functions in various sign languages.
Some mouth gestures seem to be similar in various languages but convey a different meaning. For example, pursed lips in ASL mean “to an amazing degree” and “to a small degree,” while in NGT, this mouth morpheme means “at ease” (Bickford and Fraychineaud 44). However, there are also some similarities in the meaning of mouth gestures. For example, clenched teeth in both ASL and LIS may mean “fast” or “immediate” (Bickford and Fraychineaud 41; Branchini and Mantovan 163). Sometimes, mouth gestures reflect the surrounding culture. For example, in LIS, signers use the mouth morpheme “tp,” which is shown as the protrusion of the tongue and means “like not” (Branchini and Mantovan 163). This morpheme reflects Italians’ habit of sticking out their tongue when they do not like something (Branchini and Mantovan 163). Likewise, in ASL, “pow” is used by both signers and English speakers to indicate an explosion or a hit. It can be concluded that some mouth morphemes are present in different sign languages, but their meaning rarely coincides. Moreover, although mouth gestures are not derived from the spoken language, they can reflect the surrounding culture.
The Influence of Spoken Language on Mouth Morphemes
The influence of the spoken language on the sign language is represented by the second type of mouth morphemes – mouthings. This type refers to the non-vocal articulation of words or parts of words from the surrounding spoken language (Sandler 255). Mouthings are used more frequently than mouth gestures in all the three languages under review, but they are less uniform than mouth gestures (Branchini and Mantovan 162). For example, in a study conducted by Bank et al., the researchers found out that signers of the NGT used mouthings in 77% of cases and mouth gestures in 17% of cases (262). Given the wide use of mouthings in sign languages, one can conclude that the spoken language has a considerable influence on such languages.
The use of mouth morphemes of any kind is especially important when there is a need to distinguish between manual homonyms. Sometimes, mouthing is the preferred option between the two types. In ASL, the examples of manual homonyms are the words “pumpkin” and “melon,” which differ only by the English mouthing (Sehyr et al. 402). In NGT, the use of mouthings is obligatory for words such as “school” to distinguish it from “write” and “name,” which have identical manual signs (Bank et al. 262). An example of the use of mouthing in LIS is the word “work,” which includes a non-vocal pronunciation of “l” (the first letter of the Italian verb “lavorare,” meaning “to work”) to distinguish it from the identical sign “loan” (Fornasiero 50). Thus, mouthings are important in different sign languages because they help signers differentiate between different sign meanings and convey their message more accurately.
Conclusion
Both mouth gestures and mouthings have an important role in sign languages. Mouth gestures serve to distinguish between manual homonyms, modify the lexical meaning, and show expressions. Some mouth gestures are similar in different sign languages, which can be explained by a limited set of actions that can be performed by a mouth. However, the meaning of similar mouth gestures rarely coincides in different languages. Mouthings are widely used in the three languages under review, indicating a significant influence of the spoken language on the sign language.
Works Cited
Bank, Richard, et al. “Variation in Mouth Actions with Manual Signs in Sign Language of the Netherlands (NGT).” Sign Language & Linguistics, vol. 14, no. 2, 2011, pp. 248-270.
Bickford, J. Albert, and Kathy Fraychineaud. “Mouth Morphemes in ASL: A Closer Look.” Sign Languages: Spinning and Unraveling the Past, Present and Future, edited by R. M. de Quadros, Editora Arara Azul, 2008, pp. 32-47.
Branchini, Chiara, and Lara Mantovan, editors. A Grammar of Italian Sign Language (LIS). Edizioni Ca’ Foscari, 2020.
Fontana, Sabina. “Mouth Actions as Gesture in Sign Language.” Gesture, vol. 8, no. 1, 2008, pp. 104-123.
Fornasiero, Elena. (2016). Evaluative Morphology in Italian Sign Language. 2016. Università Ca’Foscari Venezia, Doctoral dissertation.
Sandler, Wendy. “Symbiotic Symbolization by Hand and Mouth in Sign Language.” Semiotica, vol. 2009, no. 174, 2009, pp. 241-275.
Sehyr, Zed Sevcikova, et al. “Comparing Semantic Fluency in American Sign Language and English.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, vol. 23, no. 4, 2018, pp. 399-407.