Introduction
Nutrition plays an important role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. Indeed the impact of nutrition during childhood is felt even during adulthood. Nutrition entails not only the types of dietary intakes of individuals but also the quantities of various nutrients. This experiment involves analyzing the relationship between the nutritional status of individuals, their body sizes, and their risk of developing chronic illnesses such as diabetes, stroke, and coronary heart diseases.
The experiment will be conducted using the anthropometry approach. Anthropometry has been defined as “the study of the measurement of the human body in terms of the dimensions of bone, muscle, and adipose (fat) tissue” (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, 1998, p. 1). Measures of subcutaneous adipose tissue are important because individuals with large values are reported to be at increased risks for hypertension, adult-onset diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, gallstones, arthritis, another disease, and forms of cancer.
In this experiment, students will be required to collect anthropometric measures such as height, weight, mid-arm circumference, triceps skin-fold, and waist and hip circumference. Using these measurements the students will then calculate their body mass index, mid-arm muscle circumference, and waist-hip ratio. Height refers to the general stature of an individual. The importance of taking the height measurement is to determine whether an individual’s abnormal height is due to genetic or environmental factors. Weight on the other hand refers to frame size and composition of muscle, fat, and bone.
The weight measurement of an individual is an important indicator of whether the individual has a normal weight, is underweight, overweight, or obese, and their predisposition to illnesses such as hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. This is normally determined by the body mass index of individuals, which is obtained by dividing the weight in kilograms by the square of height measured in meters. Skin-folds and waist and hip circumferences are also critical in predicting the above-mentioned diseases. It is important to note that the risk of individuals to develop the diseases is determined by comparing the anthropometric measurements with the cut-off points created by organizations such as the World Health Organization (World Health Organization, 1995).
The experiment aims to empower individuals with information about their physical measurements such as height and weight; to compare these measurements across sexes, age, and upbringing (whether in a developing or industrialized country). The exercise also aims at identifying the factors that may contribute to individuals’ current body sizes and how they can improve on them.
Materials and methods
The class was required to perform an experiment that involved taking various measurements including height, weight, mid-arm circumference, waist circumference, and hip circumference, and calculating the body mass index, mid-arm muscle circumference, and waist-hip ratio.
Taking the weight measurement
The subjects were required to stand on the center of the weight scale platform. The weight was recorded in kilograms in the automated system or on the body measurement exam form in the appropriate space.
Taking the height measurement
The subjects stood erect on the floorboard of the stadiometer with their backs to the vertical backboard of the stadiometer.
Calculating the Body Mass Index (BMI)
The BMI was obtained by dividing the weight by the square of the height measurement (weight/height2)
Taking the mid-arm circumference
The subjects were required to stand with their elbows relaxed so that the right arm hangs freely to the side. The measuring tape was placed around the upper arm at the marked point perpendicular to the long axis of the upper arm and held so that the zero ends were below the measurement value. Resting the tape on the skin surface but not pulled tight enough to compress the skin, the arm circumference was recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm.
Taking the waist circumference
The subjects were required to be in a standing position. Those taking the measurement stood behind and palpated the hip area for the right iliac crest. They then marked a horizontal line at the high point of the iliac crest and then crossed the line to indicate the mid-axillary line of the body. The measuring tape was placed around the trunk in a horizontal plane at the level marked on the right side of the trunk. The recorders walked around the individuals to make sure that the tape was parallel to the floor and that the tape was snug, but did not compress the skin. The measurement was taken at minimal respiration to the nearest 0.1 cm.
Taking the hip circumference
The subjects were required to stand erect with feet together and weight evenly distributed on both feet. The tape was then placed around the buttocks at the maximum extension of the buttocks and the recorder adjusted the sides of the tape and checked the front and sides so that the plane of the tape was horizontal. The zero ends of the tape were held under the measurement value and the tape held snug but not tight. The measurement was then taken from the right-hand side.
Calculating the waist-hip ratio (WHR)
The waist hip ratio was obtained by dividing the waist circumference with the hip circumference.
Taking the triceps skinfolds measurement
The subjects stood erect with feet together, shoulders relaxed and the arms hanging freely at the sides. The examiners stood behind the right side and located the point on the posterior surface of the right upper arm in the same area as the marked midpoint for the upper arm circumference. A fold of skin and subcutaneous adipose tissue was grasped gently with thumb and fingers approximately 2.0 cm above the marked level with the skin-fold parallel to the long axis of the arm. The jaws of the callipers were placed at the marked level, perpendicular to the length of the fold, and the skin-fold thickness was measured to the nearest 0.1 mm while the fingers continued to hold the skin-fold.
Calculating the mid-arm muscle circumference (MAMC)
The MAMC was obtained using the formula given below: MC = C-πS
Where:
- MC = mid-arm muscle circumference (cm)
- C = mid-arm circumference (cm)
- S = triceps skin-fold (cm)
- π= 3.142
Results
The measurements of the subject are shown in the table 1 below.
Table 1: Measurements of the subject.
Table 1 shows that the subject’s Body Mass Index (BMI) was 45. This figure is above 30, which implies that the subject is actually obese. The triceps skin-fold is 2.3. With reference to table 1.2 in the guide, this value is lower than the 5 value for low category therefore the subject can be categorized as belonging to the low reference group. Table 1.3 shows the percentages of men and women classified as underweight, acceptable weight, overweight and obese in Australia. Given that this individual is a male of 27 years old, the subject is among the 16.2 percent of men who are classified as obese in Australia.
Table 1.4 shows the obesity standards in white Americans using the triceps skin-fold thickness as standards for obesity. Based on age, the subject’s standard should be 21 mm minimum thickness. Therefore, this individual surpasses the standard by 2 mm or 9.52 percent. Lastly, table 1.5 shows the reference levels for arm circumference. A 100% reference level for a 27 year old man is 31.9 but this subject’s arm circumference is 38.3 cm, which exceeds the 100% reference level standard by 6.4 cm or 20.06 percent.
The tables below show the mean and range of the measurements for the entire class, on the basis of sex and upbringing.
Table 2a: Mean and range of the class measurements, by sex and upbringing.
The table above shows the mean and range for the class measurements.
Height
The mean height for the males from developing countries is 1.72 m while that of females from developing countries is 1.61 m. On the other hand, the mean height of males and females from industrialized countries is 1.76 m and 1.67 m, respectively. The data show that male students are taller than female students in this class. Similarly, students from industrialized countries are taller than those from developing countries in this class.
The range of height for males is 1.62 m – 1.83 m for developing students and 1.63 m – 1.86 m for industrialized students. The range of height for females is 1.47m – 1.70 m for developing students and 1.50 m – 1.89 m for industrialized students.
Weight
The mean weight for the males from developing countries is 74.6 kg while that of females from developing countries is 54.24 kg. On the other hand, the mean weight of males and females from industrialized countries is 78.58 kg and 60.69 kg, respectively. The data show that male students are heavier than female students in this class. Similarly, students from industrialized countries are heavier than those from developing countries in this class.
The range of weight for males is 60.6 kg – 88 kg for developing students and 54 kg – 138.2 kg for industrialized students. The range of weight for females is 41.6 kg – 72.2 kg for developing students and 44.9 kg – 87 kg for industrialized students.
BMI
The mean body mass index for the males from developing countries is 24 while that of females from developing countries is 20.8. On the other hand, the mean body mass index of males and females from industrialized countries is 25.08 and 21.68, respectively. The data show that the BMI of male students is higher than that of female students in this class. Similarly, students from industrialized countries have a higher BMI than those from developing countries.
The range of BMI for males is 20 – 31 for developing students and 18 – 45 for industrialized students. The range of BMI for females is 18 – 27 for developing students and 17 – 29 for industrialized students.
MAC
The mean mid-arm circumference for the males from developing countries is 30.55 cm while that of females from developing countries is 25.6 cm. On the other hand, the mean mid-arm circumference of males and females from industrialized countries is 32.65 cm and 27.3 cm, respectively. The data show that male students have a higher MAC than female students in this class. Similarly, students from industrialized countries have a higher MAC than those from developing countries.
The range of MAC for males is 24 cm – 34.9 cm for developing students and 23.8 cm – 45 cm for industrialized students. The range of MAC for females is 19.2 cm – 34.5 cm for developing students and 20.6 cm – 36 cm for industrialized students.
TSF
The mean triceps skinfold for the males from developing countries is 1.6 cm while that of females from developing countries is 1.8 cm. On the other hand, the mean triceps skinfold of males and females from industrialized countries is 1.08 cm and 1.6 cm, respectively. The data show that the TSF of female students is higher than that of male students in this class. Similarly, students from developing countries have a higher TSF than those from industrialized countries.
The range of TSF for males is 1.1 cm – 2.9 cm for developing students and 0.1 cm – 2.4 cm for industrialized students. The range of height for females is 1.0 cm – 2.8 cm for developing students and 0.7 cm – 2.2 cm for industrialized students.
MAC
The mean mid-arm muscle circumference for the males from developing countries is 25.55 cm while that of females from developing countries is 19.9 cm. On the other hand, the mean mid-arm muscle circumference of males and females from industrialized countries is 29.14 cm and 22.4 cm, respectively. The data show that the MAMC of male students is higher than that of female students in this class. Similarly, students from industrialized countries have a higher MAMC than those from developing countries.
The range of MAMC for males is 21.2 cm – 28.5 cm for developing students and 17.8 cm – 43.4 cm for industrialized students. The range of MAMC for females is 13.6 cm – 28.8 cm for developing students and 15.0 cm – 29.1 cm for industrialized students.
Waist circumference
The mean waist circumference for the males from developing countries is 86.59 cm while that of females from developing countries is 69.68 cm. On the other hand, the mean waist circumference of males and females from industrialized countries is 82.45 cm and 71.7 cm, respectively. The data show that male students have a bigger waist circumference than the female students in this class. Similarly, female students from industrialized countries have a bigger waist circumference than those from developing countries but male students from industrialized countries have smaller waist circumference than those from developing countries.
The range of waist circumference for males is 75 cm – 104 cm for developing students and 66 cm – 114.6 cm for industrialized students. The range of waist circumference for females is 62.5 cm – 89.5 cm for developing students and 62.1 cm – 87.5 cm for industrialized students.
Hip circumference
The mean hip circumference for the males from developing countries is 101.64 cm while that of females from developing countries is 93.83 cm. On the other hand, the mean hip circumference of males and females from industrialized countries is 99.18 cm and 96.9 cm, respectively. The data show that male students have a bigger hip circumference than female students in this class. Similarly, female students from industrialized countries have a bigger hip circumference than those from developing countries but male students from developing countries have a bigger hip circumference than male students from industrialized countries.
The range of hip circumference for males is 94 cm – 108 cm for developing students and 84 cm – 137.7 cm for industrialized students. The range of waist circumference for females is 81 cm – 109.5 cm for developing students and 84.0 cm – 115.0 cm for industrialized students.
Waist-hip ratio
The mean waist-hip ratio for the males from developing countries is 0.85 while that of females from developing countries is 0.74. On the other hand, the mean waist-hip ratio of males and females from industrialized countries is 0.83 and 0.74, respectively. The data show that male students have a bigger waist-hip ratio than the female students in this class. In addition, male students from developing countries have a bigger waist-hip ratio than their counterparts from industrialized countries. There is no difference in the waist-hip ratio between female students from developing and industrialized countries.
The range of waist-hip ratio for males is 0.8 – 0.98 for developing students and 0.73 – 0.98 for industrialized students. The range of waist circumference for females is 0.66 – 0.86 for developing students and 0.67 – 0.89 for industrialized students.
Interpretation of the individual data about stroke and coronary heart diseases
From table 1 above, the waist-hip ratio of the individual is 0.83:1. This ratio is lower than the cut-off point of 0.9:1 for males. The implication is that the individual does not have a high risk for developing stroke and coronary heart disease. On the other hand, the triceps thickness of the individual is 2.3 cm (23 mm). This value is greater than the triceps skin-fold thickness of 21 mm (based on age and sex) indicating obesity.
Using the triceps skin-fold thickness measurement, the individual is at an increased risk of developing stroke and coronary heart disease. This shows that there is a disparity in the use of anthropometric measurements to predict stroke and coronary heart diseases in the individual. The issue, therefore, is between the waist-hip ratio and the triceps skin-fold, which is a better predictor of stroke and coronary heart diseases? This issue is a major subject of debate in the literature on anthropometric measurements.
Several factors may have contributed to the individual’s present body size. One of the factors is hereditary factors. The individual may have inherited genes for large body sizes from his family. Second, poor diets may have significantly contributed to the individual’s body size. The subject may have a preference for fast foods, which have high caloric and fat contents. In addition, the subject may be leading a sedentary lifestyle with little or no physical activity. Whereas the hereditary factors cannot be changed, the individual can improve body size by following a healthy eating regimen that entails eating foods that are rich in vitamins, proteins, and energy and with little fat, salt and sugar contents, as well as engaging in physical activities.
Interpretation of class data about factors that determine body size
A look at tables 2a and 2b and the histograms in Appendix 5 reveal that sex and upbringing play important roles in determining the body size of individuals. Males are more likely than females to be taller, have heavier weights, and record higher body mass index (BMI). Males also tend to have a higher mid-arm muscle circumference and waist-hip ratio than females. Contrary, females are more likely than males to have higher triceps skin-folds measurements.
About upbringing, people living in an industrialized country tend to be taller, have heavier weights, and record higher body mass index than those living in developing countries. Industrialized countries’ residents also have higher mid-arm muscle circumference than those from developing countries. Living in a developing country is only favorable for the triceps skin-fold measurements and waist-hip ratio; therefore people from developing countries have higher TSF and W/H ratios than those from industrialized countries. These differences imply that males and people from industrialized countries have greater risks for developing stroke and coronary heart diseases than females and people from developing countries.
Besides sex and upbringing, the age of an individual is an important predictor for developing stroke and coronary heart diseases. As people grow older, their risk of developing stroke and coronary heart diseases also increases. However, the risk is greater for males and people in developed countries than it is for females and people from developing countries. Of these three factors – sex, upbringing, and age-sex seem to be the major influencing factor of body size. This can easily be determined from the histograms shown in the appendix. Besides the TSF indicator, the difference between the males and females is far greater than the difference between developing and industrialized countries for all the other anthropometric indicators. Sex, therefore, seems to have a stronger influence than upbringing and age.
Comparison between the class and the general Australian population
The anthropometric measurements for the class were compared with those of the general Australian population. Any similarities and/or differences were identified based on the sex.
Mean height
The mean height of all the males in the class was 1.75 m (175 cm). In Australia, the mean height of men aged 19 and above is 174.9 cm. This shows that there is not much difference in the heights of the males in the class and those of Australian men in the general population. On the other hand, the mean height for the females in the class was 1.64 m (164 cm). The mean height for Australian women aged 19 and above is 161.4 cm. the women in the class are taller relative to the women in the Australian general population (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998).
Mean weight
The mean weight of the males in the class was 77.4 kg. In Australia, the mean weight of men aged 19 and above is 81.9 kg. This shows that men in the class are lighter than men in the Australian general population. On the other hand, the mean weight for the females in the class was 57.11 kg. The mean weight for Australian women aged 19 and above is 67.7 kg. Like their male counterparts, women in the general Australian population are relatively heavier than women in the class (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998).
Mean waist circumference
The mean waist circumference of the males in the class was 83.68 cm. In Australia, the mean waist circumference of men aged 19 and above is 93.5 cm. Australian men have relatively bigger waist circumference than the men in the class. On the other hand, the mean waist circumference for the females in the class was 70.6 cm. The mean waist circumference for Australian women aged 19 and above is 81.1 cm. Like their male counterparts, Australian women have relatively bigger waist circumference than the women in the class (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998).
Mean hip circumference
The mean hip circumference of the males in the class was 99.91 cm. In Australia, the mean hip circumference of men aged 19 and above is 102.1 cm. This shows that the men in Australia’s general population have bigger hip circumference than the men in the class. On the other hand, the mean hip circumference for the females in the class was 95.2 cm. The mean hip circumference for Australian women aged 19 and above is 161.4 cm. The women in the general Australian population have much bigger hip circumference than the women in the class (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998).
Mean waist-hip ratio
The mean waist-hip ratio of the males in the class was 0.84. In Australia, the mean waist-hip ratio of men aged 19 and above is 0.914. This shows that the Australian men in the general population have a higher waist-hip ratio than the men in the class. On the other hand, the mean waist-hip ratio for the females in the class was 0.74. The mean waist-hip ratio for Australian women aged 19 and above is 0.788. Although the Australian women have a higher waist-hip ratio than the women in the class, the difference is very small (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998).
Mean body mass index
The mean body mass index of the males in the class was 25. In Australia, the mean body mass index of men aged 19 and above is 26.7. This shows that the Australian men in the general population have a higher body mass index than the men in the class. On the other hand, the mean body mass index for the females in the class was 21.19 while the mean body mass index for Australian women aged 19 and above is 26.0. The Australian women also have a higher body mass index than the women in the class (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1998).
Limitations of the exercise
Although the exercise provided useful information about physical measurements and their relationships with diseases such as stroke and coronary heart diseases, the exercise was limited in one major way. Specifically, there was a lack of quality control of the measurements obtained. The measurements were obtained during only one round. The students were paired up and each individual in the pair obtained the measurements of the other individual. Lack of quality control may have affected the accuracy of the measurements leading to high probabilities of measurement error. The probability of measurement error was also compounded by inadequate supervision probably due to the high ratio of students and supervisors. To improve on the accuracy of the measurements, there is a need for taking the measurements on two or more rounds.
Another limitation arising from the exercise was the agitation experienced by subjects when taking the height and weight measurements. This may also have affected the accuracy of the measurements.
The issue of rounding off the body mass index to the nearest whole number may have affected the actual weight classification of the subjects. For instance, a subject whose BMI was 30.4 should be classified as obese because the BMI is greater than 30. However, rounding off this figure to the nearest whole number gives a figure of 30, which is classified as overweight rather than obese.
Discussion
The use of anthropometric indicators to gauge the health and nutrition status of different segments of populations has been done by many researchers. Msamati and Igbigbi (2000) undertook a study to identify the anthropometric profile of adult black Malawians residing in an urban area. The researchers argued that although anthropometry is a useful tool for predicting medical conditions such as respiratory diseases, hypertension, and diabetes, very few studies have been conducted in the African continent. Using a random sample of 898 adults drawn from Blantyre City, the researchers measured their weight, height, and hip and waist circumference and calculated their BMI and waist-hip ratio. The BMI was then used to classify the subjects as underweight, normal weight, overweight, or obese.
Contrary to this study, the researchers found that females were relatively heavier than males in that population. Females had higher BMI than males but the males had larger mean waist-hip ratios, just like the findings of this study. Many women in the study were obese (but no man was obese) but the rate of obesity in the women increased with age giving evidence of the impact of age on body size. Women, therefore, showed a far greater age-related increase in overweight and obesity than men.
The study further argues that the striking differences in obesity between developed and developing countries can be explained by differences in diet, lifestyle, and seasonal variations. The same can be said of differences in obesity between rural and urban areas in a particular country. Studies show that the majority of people from rural areas derive less than 10 percent of their daily dietary energy from fat (Huddle, 1996). This is different from urban areas where people may obtain more than 30 percent of their daily dietary energy from fat (Tulle, 1998). Moreover, people in developed countries tend to be more sedentary than people living in developing countries where the nature of their occupations (such as agriculture) forces them to be more active.
In another study conducted by Prista et al. (2003) in Mozambique, the researchers wanted to find out the relevance of anthropometric measures as indicators of nutritional status. The researchers used a sample of 2316 adolescent students aged between 6 and 18 years from whom they collected weight, height, and body mass index. They found that the male students had a higher prevalence rate of stunting compared to female students. In addition, males had a higher prevalence of stunting and wasting simultaneously compared to females. However, the prevalence of wasting and stunting varied greatly with socio-economic status.
Those belonging to high socioeconomic status had the lowest prevalence rate of stunting and wasting while those belonging to the low socioeconomic status had the highest prevalence rate of wasting and stunting. The researchers also examined the influence of physical fitness on body size. They found that the overweight males and females performed significantly worse on all physical activity tasks than the other groups. The researchers associate the high prevalence of stunting and wasting among the boys and girls with a difficult upbringing during which the country experienced war for three decades. War adversely affects food availability and consequently limits the nutritional intake of those affected.
In a similar study, Satyanarayana, Naidu, and Rao (1979) examined the relationship between anthropometric indicators, nutritional status, and physical work capacity among Indian boys aged between 14 and 17 years. They argued that poor socioeconomic statuses in developing countries may have a significant influence on children’s malnutrition. The anthropometric measures used in this study include weight for age, height for age, and weight for height.
The boys with adequate height for age but the subnormal weight for age were considered to be suffering from acute short duration malnutrition. Those with adequate weight for height but subnormal height and weight for age were considered to be nutritional dwarfs, while those with lower values for all three measurements were considered to be suffering from long-duration malnutrition. The researchers found significant differences in heights and weights between age groups but no difference in the fat percentage. They also found a strong correlation between physical work capacity and weight and height.
They also found that all those children who were severely malnourished during their childhood had not improved their nutritional status, lending support to the claims that childhood nutritional status affects the nutritional status in later years.
Coly et al. (2012) also undertook a study on stunting among preschool children in Senegal with the realization that preschool stunting has important consequences for young adult nutritional status. The researchers collected anthropometric measures including height, tricipital and subscapular skinfolds, and body weight. The study found that boys were taller and heavier than the girls, lending support to the findings of this study but contradicting the study by Msamati and Igbigbi (2000). However, the girls were found to have a higher BMI than the boys. The researchers also found that among those who were stunted in early childhood, there was little or no catch-up of height later in life.
Cassani et al. (2009) examined the prediction of blood pressure using anthropometric indicators among Brazilian men. Anthropometric measures such as height, weight, waist circumference, hip circumference, BMI, waist-hip ratio, and skin-fold thickness were collected and calculated. The researchers found that both systolic and diastolic blood pressure were linearly correlated with all anthropometric measurements except for the waist-hip ratio.
There was a consistent increase in the systolic and diastolic blood pressure with increasing waist circumference and BMI. There was also a correlation between the skin-fold measurements and diastolic blood pressure. In addition, age was an important predictor of hypertension with older men having higher risks of developing hypertension than the younger ones. This lends support to the influence of age on the development of chronic illnesses and supports this study and other studies such as Msamati and Igbigbi (2000).
The use of anthropometric measures to predict chronic diseases has also been studied by Roopakala et al. (2009). In particular, the researchers wanted to examine how anthropometric measures predict central obesity. They argue that central obesity is an important risk factor for developing metabolic syndrome, atherosclerosis, and other cardiovascular diseases. Central obesity can be predicted by intra-abdominal fat thickness. The researchers collected anthropometric measures of height, weight, waist circumference, and hip circumference and calculated the BMI and waist-hip ratio of 60 individuals.
They found that; BMI had a significant positive correlation with subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue (SAT) than with visceral abdominal adipose tissue (VAT); waist circumference (WC) had a positive correlation with both SAT and VAT, and waist-hip ratio (WHR) had no significant correlation with abdominal adipose tissue. Regarding sex differences, the study found that BMI was significantly positively correlated with both SAT and VAT but among the females, the BMI was only positively correlated with SAT and not VAT. Based on this outcome, the researchers argued that WC could be a better predictor of intra-abdominal fat than WHR or BMI.
Indeed, the choice of which anthropometric indicator best predicts a certain illness is controversial. In this study, the individual was found to have an increased risk for developing stroke and coronary heart disease using the triceps skin-fold as a measure. However, when using the waist-hip ratio as a measure, the individual was found to have no risk of developing stroke and coronary heart diseases. Hence, the issue of which anthropometric indicators are good at predicting particular diseases needs further assessment.
To overcome this problem, Damasceno et al. (2009) suggested using at least two anthropometric measures rather than just focusing on one indicator. In their study, Damasceno et al. (2009) examined the performance of three anthropometric indicators (weight, height, and BMI) to predict obesity. They found that although BMI has a good correlation with fat in adolescents, it does not accurately reflect the many body changes that occur in this age group as well as the gender differences.
The body mass index (BMI) has traditionally been used to measure the amount of body fat and many epidemiological studies have emphasized its role in predicting morbidity and mortality (World Health Organization, 1997; Calle et al., 1999) and to classify people as normal weight, underweight, overweight or obese. Nevertheless, BMI is limited in various ways. First, BMI does not take into consideration the wide variations in the distribution of body fat and therefore it has significant limitations in predicting the accumulation of intra-abdominal fat (Chen et al., 2000).
An increased BMI does not tell which body compartment (fat or lean mass) is inadequate and cannot differentiate subcutaneous from visceral fat accumulation. This is why a “study may show a population with low prevalence rates of obesity having a high incidence of diseases linked with insulin resistance” (Chen et al., 2000, p. 850).
As an overview, the literature reviewed in this section lends support to the usefulness of anthropometric indicators in predicting medical conditions. Just like the results in this study, the studies reviewed showed that the body size of individuals is influenced by many factors including diets, lifestyle, historical factors (for instance, nutritional status during childhood), area of residence (developed versus developing and rural versus urban) and socioeconomic status of individuals and households.
Conclusion
The paper has reported the procedures that were followed during the exercise that involved collection of anthropometric measurements of the members of the class. The data were then interpreted based on the standard cut-off points of each of the anthropometric measurement and the implications on risk for chronic diseases such as stroke and coronary heart diseases. Moreover, the results of the class were compared with the data on the general Australian population and differences between the males and females identified. The sex of individuals seemed to be the major influencing factor of individuals’ body sizes with males recording bigger body sizes than the females of the class. Upbringing and age also played an important role in determining the individuals’ body sizes. A look at the literature supports these findings.
Demographic factors – sex, age and upbringing – and other factors such as diet, lifestyle and historical factors are also major determinants of body sizes identified in the literature review. In order to maintain health body sizes and avoid developing chronic illnesses, it is advisable for individuals to eat healthy balanced diets and increase their levels of physical activity. The report has major implications for practice. Specifically, these factors should be taken into consideration when designing and implementing nutritional programs for particular segments of the population.
References
Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1998. National Nutrition Survey: Nutrient Intakes and Physical Measurements. Canberra: ABS.
Calle, E. Thun, M. Petrelli, J. Rodriguez, C. & Heath, C., 1999. Body mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of US adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 341, pp. 1097-1105.
Cassani, R. Nobre, F. Pazin-Filho, A. & Schmidt, A., 2009. Relationship between blood pressure and anthropometry in a cohort of Brazilian men: A cross-sectional study. American Journal of Hypertension, pp. 1-5.
Chen, C. Lin, K. Tsai, S. & Chou, P., 2000. Different association of hypertension and insulin-related metabolic syndrome between men and women in 8437 non-diabetic Chinese. American Journal of Hypertension, 13, pp. 846-853.
Coly, A. Miler, J. Diallo, A. Ndiaye, T. Benefice, E. Simondon, F. Wade, S. & Simondon, K., 2012. Preschool stunting, adolescent migration, catch-up growth, and adult height in young Senegalese men and women of rural origin. American Society for Nutrition, pp. 2412-2420.
Damasceno, M. Lopes, V. Oliveira, D. Nogueira, N. Siqueira, I. & Macedo, S., 2009. Obesity among public school teenagers: the performance of three anthropometric criteria. Acta Paul Enferm, 22(2), pp. 198-204.
Huddle, J.M., 1996. Energy intake, iron and zinc nutriture of pregnant women in rural Malawi. A. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Guelf, Canada.
Msamati, B. & Igbigbi, P., 2000. Anthropometric profile of urban adult black Malawians. East African Medical Journal, 77(7), pp. 364-368.
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III, 1998. Body measurements (anthropometry). Rockville, NHANES III.
Prista, A. Maia, J. Damasceno, A. & Buenen, G. 2003. Anthropometric indicators of nutritional status: implications for fitness, activity, and health in school-age children and adolescents from Maputo, Mozambique. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 77, pp. 952-959.
Roopakala, M. Suresh, A. Ashtalakshmi, S. Giridhar, A. & Silvia, W., 2009. Anthropometric measurements as predictors of intra-abdominal fat thickness. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 53(3), pp. 259-264.
Satyanarayana, K. Naidu, N. & Rao, N., 1979. Nutritional deprivation in childhood and the body size, activity, and physical work capacity of young boys. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 32, pp. 1769-1775.
Tulle, K., 1998. Personal communication. Sheffield: University of Sheffield.
World Health Organization, 1995. Physical status: the use and interpretation of anthropometry. Report of a WHO Expert Consultation. WHO Technical Report Series Number 854. Geneva: World Health Organization.
World Health Organization, 1997. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic: Report of a WHO consultation on obesity. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Appendices
Appendix 1: Class data – males only
Appendix 2: Class data – females only
Appendix 3: Class data – developing only
Appendix 4: Class data – industrialized only
Appendix 5: Histograms of the means of the measurements, by sex and upbringing
