Linguists have a number of transcription conventions to utilise. Notably, these systems share certain features in common but they are quite different (Mazeland, 2006). In this paper, one of the most conventional transcription systems will be employed, Jefferson’s convention.
This system is clear and concise and it enables the transcriber to reveal all major peculiarities of the conversation (utterance). There are not too many symbols, which makes the transcription easy to analyse. The story goes as follows:
i guess (.) er <i’ll tell:> about >one episode from my life< which (.) i’m sure (.) is the mO:st remarkable ill:ustration of my character. i hesitate too: much. i was a and er 0.7 there was a hUGe party >one of my classmates was throwing<. hmm. anda: 0.4 friend of mine wa- and i. er. we: were tRYIng to decide whether we SHOULD go there. we had (.) like a dozen ova: (.) er (.) >reasons< to go anda: well: stay home. yea. sO (.) we:
couldn’t decide anda (.) we were >quite tired of the process< which had been on fo:r a while. finally 0.7 er (.) >on the day of the party< we- or: even a few HOURS before its start (.) er 0.4 we simply threw a coin. oh (.) hmm (.) we threw it >like< THREE times. <it’s just> we wanted to make SURE we got it right. (.) we went to the party anda: (0.4) we had a lot of fun there. oh. i even met a new friend who:
er (.) has had a GREAT impact on my life. SO (.) MY point IS 0.6 i often hesitate anda: i spend tOO much time trying er. well er. >different things<. i should be MORE confident anda: this is what i’m trying to learn now. oh (.) and I can be prOUd as i do and i don’t need YEARS to decide (.) er (.) which t-shirt to buy or (.) er (.) where to go to dine out.
Narrative Analysis
To analyse the narrative, it is possible to use Labov’s structure that contains the following sections: an abstract, an orientation clause, complicating action, resolution, evaluation and a coda (Labov, 1997). The first part of the narrative starts ends with the words “illustration of my character”.
This part is an abstract according to Labov’s segmentation as this part contains a general purpose of telling this story (Labov, 1997). The next part of the text starts with the words “i hesitate too: much” and finishes with “whether we SHOULD go there”. This part, an orientation clause, provides such details as participants, the place and time of the event and so on.
The next part is complicating action and it starts with “we had (.) like a dozen” and finishes with “we wanted to make SURE we got it right”. In this part, the plot of the story is given. Major events of the story are included in this section of the text.
Resolution part starts with “ (.) we went to the party” and ends with “GREAT impact on my life”. Here, the story is told and there is certain return to the beginning of the story. This section is the end of the story and reference to the point mentioned at the start.
Evaluation part is also present in this text and it starts with “SO (.) MY point IS 0.6 i often” and finishes with “trying to learn now”. In this section, there is certain evaluation of the plot. Thus, the narrator reveals certain weaknesses and actions undertaken to eliminate them.
Finally, the coda of this text starts with “oh (.) and I can be prOUd” and finishes at the end of the text. This part returns to the moment of speaking and the narrator reveals certain achievements and feelings on the matter. This part includes the lesson learnt from the story.
Phonetic Transcription
Rost and Candlin (2014) note that phonetic broad transcription ignores lots of details and reveals the way utterances are pronounced whereas phonemic representation is more detailed and reveals all peculiarities of a particular utterance. The first 100 words of the story can be presented in the form of a broad phonetic transcription.
- aɪ ‘ges ɜ: aɪl ‘tel ə’baut ‘wʌn ‘episəud frɔm maɪ ‘laɪf
- witʃ aɪm ‘ʃuə ‘is ðə ‘məust re‘mɑ:kbl ˏilʌs´treiʃn ɔv maɪ ‘kᴂrəktə
- ‘aɪ hesi’teit tu: mʌtʃ. ‘aɪ ‘wɔz ə‘ti:neidᴣə ənd ɜ: ðɜə ‘wɔz ə’hjudᴣ ‘pɑ:ti ‘wʌn ɔv maɪ ‘klɑ:smeits ‘wɔz ‘θrəuiŋ
- hm əndə: ‘frend ɔv ‘main wɔ ənd ‘aɪ ɜ: ‘wi: ‘wɜ: ‘traɪŋ tu di’saɪd weðə ‘wi: ‘ʃud ‘gəu ‘ðɜə
- ‘wi: həd laɪk ə ‘dʌzn ɔva: ɜ: ‘ri:znz tu ‘gəu əndə: wel ‘stei ‘həum
- jea səu ‘wi: ‘kudnt di’saɪd əndə: ‘wi: ‘wɜ: kwaɪt ‘taiəd ɔv ðə ‘prəusez ‘witʃ ‘həd ‘bi:n ‘ɔn fɔrəwail
This broad phonetic transcription is easier to provide as it ignores various details. However, phonemic analysis is very precise. For instance, the word been can be presented as [‘traɪŋ] (line 4) in phonetic transcription but it would be [‘traiyŋ] as I tend to pronouns the word in that particular way. Clearly, phonemic analysis requires a lot of precision and attention as it sheds light on all peculiarities of a particular speech.
Since phonemic analysis is a complicated topic, I would pay special attention when teaching it. I would provide transcriptions of a number of texts to make the student acquainted with symbols. I would also try to find similar texts pronounced by different people to trace the differences that are meaningful in the phonemic analysis. These can be famous lines from books featured in different films.
Morphological Analysis
Inflectional morphemes are morphemes that change grammatical characteristics of a word (Yule, 2010). In the text, it is possible to locate the following inflectional morphemes (underlined): classmates, things, reasons, hours, times, years (forms plural); has (forms third person singular); throwing, trying, (forms participle to form Past Continuous); had, threw, wanted, got (forms past).
Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words usually making them a different part of speech (Birch, 2014). In the text under analysis, the following derivational morphemes can be found: remarkable (forms an adjective out of a noun), illustration (a noun is formed out of a verb), tired and confident (an adjective is formed out of a verb), finally, simply and eventually (an adverb is formed out of an adjective).
Compound nouns used in the text are: teenager, classmates. There is an example of word-combination in the text. The word T-shirt is a combination of the letter T and the word shirt. Therefore, the word includes two meanings: the type of a garment and the shape of this item. It is necessary to note that no other type of word formation is used.
Teaching derivational morphemes can be an interesting topic to teach and learn. The teacher should always draw students’ attention to, at least, one derivative. Clearly, the number of derivatives depends on the students’ age and proficiency.
Hence, when teaching a new word it is a good idea to draw spider maps to reveal some derivatives. It can be done in a form of a fun game: students are asked to think of possible words derived from the word on the board. Clearly, only existing words can be written on the board. Otherwise, students may memorise wrong words instead of the necessary ones.
Word Categories and Meaning
Tsohatzidis (2014) notes that the theory of prototypes has become widely employed in linguistics. As far as the text in question is concerned, it is possible to trace some prototypical as well as non-prototypical words. It is possible to note that teenager is a non-prototypical word as it is not possible to call it the “clearest example” of the prototype (which can be a human) (Yule, 2010, p. 119).
Thus, teenager can describe a person (both male and female) aged between 13 and 19. This is a very wide group and, at the same time, a teenager possesses all major features of a human. When it comes to prototypical words utilised in the text, it is possible to mention the word episode that implies a part of some action, process. Life is a process and it is clear that episode is a part of a human’s life. It is possible to state that it is a clear example.
The text in question includes all word classes. Since, it is not an academic piece of writing, the text under consideration includes exclamations along with other word classes. All parts of speech are used as each of them reveals certain meaning and makes the speech clear, concise and lively.
When teaching word categories it is essential to pay attention to student’s age and level. Students have to understand the role of each word class.
To practice this kind of categorisation, it is possible to ask students to write sentences with the use of as many parts of speech (within one sentence) as possible. It is also possible to ask students to use only a few parts of speech. This task will help students understand the importance of each part of speech.
Phrasal and Clausal Categories
The text in question includes almost all types of phrases. The only type of phrase that was not used is an absolute phrase. An absolute phrase is almost a clause but it is without a finite verb. This type of phrase is often used in literature though it can be employed in speech as well.
Since it is a rather complicated structure, it is not used that often in speech. It adds certain details to the narrative. The text in question includes clauses to combine ideas and add details.
When teaching syntax, the teacher has to pay attention to students’ age and level. Hargis (2014) argues that syntax is harder than vocabulary and students tend to process less information on the former topic than on the latter.
Therefore, it is important to give material on syntax in small parts providing clear instructions. Of course, it is crucial to focus on the use of English and encourage students to employ the new patterns in their speech.
The teacher should also exploit different games to make the process easier for students irrespective of their age. For instance, it is possible to use a strategy mentioned above. The teacher may ask students to write a simple sentence and ‘enrich’ with various phrases and clauses. The most sophisticated sentences may be analysed in class or it can be a home assignment. Another way to practice clause can be combined with reading class.
Thus, students may bring their favourite pieces of writing or just any writing in English (an extract from a novel, short story, newspaper, magazine and so on). They can be asked to analyse the extracts in terms of syntax and find as many types of phrases and clauses as possible.
They will bring their pieces (without any notes on them) in class where students will have to switch their extracts and students will try to analyse their partner’s texts. Students may then compare their analyses.
It is possible to utilise a relative clause that is the final sentence in the text. It is possible to ask students how decisive they are and which is the hardest decision they have to make occasionally or every day. Students make their own clauses and the topic is introduced in a form that is memorable as it refers to students’ personalities.
Understanding One’s Linguistic Self
The concept of idiolect appeared in the middle of the twentieth century and it is now widely used by linguists (Olsson & Luchjenbroers, 2013). It is possible to tell a lot about a person (including socioeconomic and cultural characteristics) based on the way he/she speaks. I can also explore my linguistic self.
For instance, since I have used the word like twice in such a short extract, it is possible to say that I pertain to the group of young people who like watching TV, communicating with peers and having a good time. This is a colloquialism and this means that I communicate with my peers quite a lot as I am influenced by certain trends.
At the same time, I speak correctly and do not use a lot of colloquialisms (the word like is the only one). This suggests that I have spent significant amount of time in the academic world. I read a lot of classical literature, which makes my language quite diverse.
It is also clear that I pay attention to grammar when talking as I try to correct myself. Finally, I try to choose words carefully and the pace of my speech is not high. There is a lot of hesitation in my speech and this also shows that I carefully pick words.
I would rather reflect on why I should teach my students the concept of idiolect. I believe this will encourage students to improve their skill and knowledge. They will definitely want to speak correct English to become a part of a larger group of highly educated people. Some students may be encouraged by the opportunity to sound ‘cool’ and they may choose to use some colloquialism in their speech, which is quite normal.
Reference List
Birch, B.M. (2014). English L2 reading: Getting to the bottom. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Hargis, C.H. (2014). English syntax: An outline for teachers of English language learners. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher.
Labov, W. (1997). Some further steps in narrative analysis. Web.
Mazeland, H. (2006). Conversation analysis. In Enciclopedia of language and linguistics (pp. 153-162). Oxford: Elsevier Science.
Olsson, J., & Luchjenbroers, J. (2013). Forensic linguistics. Springfield, IL: A&C Black.
Rost, M., & Candlin, C.N. (2014). Listening in language learning. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Tsohatzidis, S.L. (2014). Meaning and prototypes: Studies in linguistic categorization. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Yule, G. (2010). The study of language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.