Philosophies and Theories of Education Term Paper

Educational theories and philosophies provide a theoretical roadmap upon which teachers can examine and transform their opinions and beliefs about education. Realism, existentialism, pragmatism and idealism are common systematic philosophies that offer new worldviews on education and learning (Gutek, 2004). Idealists regard schools as social agencies where students come to seek the truth. They focus on disciplines that stimulate thinking such as theology, mathematics, literature and philosophy.

On the other hand, realists favor instruction of specific skills like reading, math and writing through discussion, experiment or demonstration. In realist classrooms, the focus is on student competencies while in pragmatist classrooms, teachers mainly teach problem-solving skills to students. On the other hand, an existentialist education urges students to reflect on their personal choices, identity and commitments.

In contrast, educational theories primarily examine classroom instructional approaches (Alexander & Winne, 2006). The progressivism theory advocates for learning that focuses on student interests and experiences. In contrast, the social reconstruction theory dictates that instruction should focus on socioeconomic problems affecting the society.

‘Perennialism’ theory postulates that, “to educate a rational person, instruction should focus on (Western) cultural heritage” (Alexander & Winne, 2006, p. 17). The other two theories, essentialism and the critical theory, advocate for instruction that focuses on traditional subject matter and on critical issues respectively.

The Weaknesses of Essentialism

Essentialist philosophy favors instruction of core subjects such as science, reading and math. Thus, the aim of an essentialist curriculum is to develop a common knowledge on traditional subjects (Bernstein, 2000). Essentialists prefer learning that focuses on the core subjects of instruction, not on general knowledge in a number of disciplines.

The essentialist philosophy has some weaknesses in relation to the mode of instruction. The theory is teacher-centered (Fuchs, 2001). Thus, students lack the freedom to question, analyze and explore the content, which may affect academic standards. Also, essentialists do not acknowledge and appreciate non-academic disciplines such as drama, art, extra-curricular activities and sports. It assumes that all learners have the same capabilities and academic interests.

A moderate essentialist approach can help students achieve their full potential. An adaptation of the curriculum to recognize and integrate non-academic subjects can help students learn skills in the social sciences and at the same time pursue their interests (Bowker & Star, 2000). Also, instruction should focus on social life issues and recognize student capabilities as well as the different learning styles of students in schools.

Rational Meta-theory

In a school context, a rational meta-theory has the potential of harmonizing the different theoretical approaches used by educators. Such a meta-theory should illuminate the philosophies as opposed to making them ambiguous. According to Schulz (2009), meta-theories should “serve to reinforce the science education’s growing sense of academic autonomy and independence from socioeconomic demands” (p. 1).

Thus, to implement evidence-based practices in learning, Schulz’s concept should be applied to all disciplines. Moreover, to implement good educational practices, such a meta-theory would need adequate support from all stakeholders. Bernstein (2000) argues that a rational meta-theory should present a “curriculum-based argument and a grounding argument” (p. 8). Thus, an effective meta-theory would encourage research-based practices as opposed to learning that focuses only on core subjects.

Also, through research, rational meta-theories can facilitate strategic planning in schools, which will facilitate the achievement of academic goals. According to Van Gigch (1991), rational meta-theories serve to reaffirm that classroom instruction is relevant to the 21^st century industry needs.

He further states that it is the responsibility of the school to select and apply specific philosophical concepts, which may be influenced by the school environment and culture. In view of this, meta-theories implemented in professional manner would help educators to bridge the gap between the instructional approaches and teaching practices.

The Social Theory and the NCLB Act

Social theory explains the social change process, its development, its facilitating and inhibiting factors and its results/outcomes. According to Johnson and Johnson (2009), “social theory means nothing unless it can translate into some news you can use” (p. 365).

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 has its origins from the social theory, which implies that the framers of this policy considered the social theory in formulating the policy. Johnson and Johnson (2009) note that the NCLB Act enhances non-discriminatory practices in schools by advocating for admission of all students regardless of ethnicity, race, disability and gender.

The aim of the policy is to ensure that all school leavers have essential skills to help them become productive citizens. Thus, under this policy, schools are required to exercise fairness in their educational practices as the first step in the alleviation of socioeconomic inequality in the country (Johnson & Johnson, 2009).

Roseth, Johnson and Johnson (2008) state that Title 1 funds are meant for “migrant children, children with limited English proficiency, homeless children, disabled children and delinquent or at risk youth and children (p. 224). Thus, the Act tackles the issues related to the social theory.

Professional Organizations and Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism is central to education and learning in schools. A considerable body of research underscores the significance of addressing the academic needs of students from different cultural backgrounds. Organizations such as the Instructional Materials for Science Educators (IMSE), the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) and the American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT), among others, play the role of integrating multicultural learning into education (Banks & Banks, 2007).

Multiculturalism has, over the recent past, been integrated into learning in schools. Yet, multicultural issues such as gender, ethnicity, race and religion continue to affect learning in today’s world. Discrimination in schools can affect learning in schools. The goal of professional bodies is to eliminate bias and discrimination in schools and establish a learning environment that nurtures diversity.

Professional bodies should play a role in fostering multiculturalism in education. Orfield and Kurlaender (2001) argue that professionals in all fields can help integrate multiculturalism and cultural competence in education.

In particular, professionals in the fields of education can positively influence the learning of students in schools. Professional organizations, through diversity initiatives, can advocate for improvement in curriculums and course content to reflect student diversity. They can also offer career counseling and mentorship to minority students.

Multicultural Programs in the Workplace

Cultural discrimination in organizations can adversely affect employee performance and productivity in organizations. Organizations that implement multicultural programs to address the challenges of diversity gain benefits such as high job satisfaction, competitive advantage and low turnover rates (Shen et al., 2008).

These benefits, in turn, foster cohesive environments and cut down operational costs. In order to prepare organizations to handle workplace challenges and implement multicultural programs, diversity initiatives that address the issues of curriculum development and counseling at the school level should be implemented (Shen et al., 2009).

The knowledge gained in schools will help managers to select appropriate content during workshops and seminars which would improve the trainees’ cultural competence. This will ensure that workers are effectively trained to thrive in culturally diverse workplace environments.

Diversity management in organizations involves various approaches. Most organizations comply with local, state and federal statutes on diversity, reward cultural heterogeneity through cultural fetes and apply affirmative action for minority groups (Shen et al., 2009).

The variety of approaches indicates that organizations strive to support and nurture workplace diversity (Okoro & Washington, 2012). Organizations that have implemented multicultural programs began with diversity initiatives. The organizations then developed a range of policies and best practices to manage organizational change.

Educational Standards and Policy

Any educational system must have set standards and policies that guide curriculum content, learning opportunities and student performance (Peterson & Hess, 2008). It should give all students equal opportunities to ensure equivalent academic accomplishments. The National Center for Education Statistics administers a number of tests that measure national proficiency in math and reading through the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).

Alexander and Alexander (2011) reveal that some states like Massachusetts and Missouri have set world-class standards while others like Georgia have comparatively low standards. Thus, the federal government should assume the role of setting universal educational standards for all students.

The role of school curriculums is to guide teaching and learning in schools. In view of this, curriculums should reflect the state’s interests. This implies that the local community, being the biggest stakeholder, should take part in curriculum development. A survey by Peterson and Hess (2008) found out that most teachers hold the view that local school communities be allowed to participate in curriculum development.

In the same survey, teachers suggested a reduction in the role of the private sector and the federal government in curriculum development. Although control of schools by the federal government enhances educational standards, local organizations ensure that the curriculum adequately reflects the goals and interests of the state.

The Control of Educational Institutions

To ensure high standards, the standards of the American educational system are not only regulated by the federal and state governments but also by the local communities. The federal government does not directly influence education in schools. However, like the states, the federal government “impacts on schools and students in a substantial and diverse way” (Gladieux, Hauptman & Knapp, 1997, p. 103).

It has developed hierarchical reporting structures and systems to ensure that the federal academic outcomes are achieved. The systems and structures influence standards and assessments in educational institutions nationally.

Also, the federal government directly influences education through loans and grants advanced to institutions that embrace the federal standards and outcomes (Cohen, 2001). On the other hand, state governments influence education through state laws. Cohen (2001) observes that “state policies allocate decision-making authority to state agencies and college officials” (p. 20). States also implement accountability systems to enhance compliance to state interests and regulations.

However, too much state control affects the relationship between the state and schools. Therefore, state regulations must be consistent with institutional missions to facilitate systems that enhance communication and collaboration. On the other hand, community organizations become involved in education through accreditation of programs and curriculum development.

An Ideal Educational Organization

A good academic institution is the one that offers high quality education. High quality education ensures that the content taught reflects industry needs and community interests (Gladieux, Hauptman & Knapp, 1997). In such institutions, the curriculum is modified and refined to reflect the changing needs of the community. The aim of good academic institutions is to impart good qualities to students. Such institutions establish a high quality environment.

This means that the schools have “facilities that meet the child’s needs” (Gladieux, Hauptman & Knapp, 1997). Such schools also teach students important virtues such as selflessness and love. Also, an ideal school’s physical architecture and social environment create conditions that enhance student learning.

Besides a quality-oriented environment, good schools also embrace openness and transparency. An ideal school’s management listens and responds to suggestions from the parents and students.

Thus, the administrators of an ideal academic institution should be good communicators. An ideal institution should also offer the basic curriculum to students, which comprises of practical, formal skills and sensory classes (Barton & Armstrong, 2007). Good institutions should also emphasize on quality education that promotes reflective thinking and self-directed learning among students.

Pros and Cons of Different Forms of Primary Education

The form of educational system in a school determines the students’ academic outcomes. Charter schools have several advantages. They offer many options for students with diverse academic needs. They also foster competition and innovation due to relaxed policies and union rules.

A charter school can choose to give a particular curriculum that is of interest to the families and communities (Ravitch, 2000). However, charter schools often have problems of fiscal inefficiency due to limited transparency and accountability. For-profit and private schools are also less transparent in their operations. They are also expensive compared to public schools. However, they offer quality education that meets the needs of the students.

In contrast, public schools offer diversity, which ensures that “children get more socialized” (Parkerson & Parkerson, 2001). However, the quality of education in these schools is low and thus, may not meet the needs of each student. On the other hand, home schools have the advantage of being cost-effective for many families. They also enhance socialization among children. Home schools are also flexible with regard to extra-curricular activities and remedial classes. Thus, home schools are well-positioned to serve preschoolers and toddlers.

References

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Alexander, P. A., & Winne, P. H. (2006). Handbook of educational psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum

Banks, J. A., & Banks, C. A. (2007). Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Barton, L., & Armstrong F. (2007). Policy, experience and change: cross-cultural reflections on inclusive education. Dordrecht: Springer.

Bernstein, B. (2000). Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, research, critique. New York: Rowman and Little.

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